The Industrial Revolution

Goods made slowly and by hand (low productivity).
Workers managed all production stages; goods varied in quality.
Guilds established standards but resulted in high prices.
Work done at home (cottage industry) with local sales, workers paid via piece rate.

Transition to Factory System increased productivity (high productivity).
Machines performed discrete tasks, resulting in uniform quality and lower prices.
Work centralized in factories; goods sold locally and internationally; workers paid hourly.

Capitalism created a middle class and free businesses.
Innovations like Jethro Tull’s seed drill improved farming efficiency, driving labor away from farms.
Availability of raw materials (iron, coal).
Geographic advantage: rivers, canals, harbors facilitated trade.
Compact land; iron and coal close to transport routes.
Established banking system supported machinery purchase.
Political stability encouraged private property.
Colonies provided guaranteed markets.

Steam Engine (James Watt, 1769): Revolutionized energy sources, relocated machinery.
Iron Industry: Steam engines improved iron production processes.
Textile Industry: Machines spun cotton and wove cloth, enhancing efficiency.

Economic: Increased goods at lower prices.
Social: Urbanization and resultant social issues like pollution arose.
New class structure emerged, replacing aristocracy with capitalists.
Political changes due to labor surplus (e.g., rise of liberalism and communism).
Technological advancements (railroads, steamships).
Agricultural Revolution increased productivity via machinery and larger farms.
Demographic shifts reflected in migration patterns and urban blight.

Shift from communal farmland to private enclosures, impacting agricultural practices.

Availability of cheap imported foods improved working-class diets.
Increased variety (e.g., butter from Denmark, meat from Argentina).
Social implications: Low wages forced long working hours, despite affordable food.

Spread to Belgium, France, and Germany in early 1800s; delayed by conflicts.
Further diffusion to Italy, Netherlands, Russia, Sweden later.
United States rapidly industrialized (8,000 textile spindles in 1808 to 80,000 by 1811).
Stimulus diffusion pattern observed with technology improvements during spread.