APUSH Acts Review

Colonial Era

• Mayflower Compact (1620)
  • First documented instance of self-government in the colonies.
• Fundamental Orders of Connecticut (1639)
  • First written constitution in America.
• Act of Toleration (1649)
  • Granted religious freedom to Christians in Maryland.
• Acts of Navigation
  • Mercantilist policies restricting trade between English colonies and England.

Revolutionary Era

• Proclamation of 1763
  • Restricted colonial expansion west of the Appalachian Mountains to prevent conflicts with Native Americans.
• Sugar Act (1764)
  • Revenue tax on colonial merchants to offset the debt from the French and Indian War.
• Stamp Act (1765)
  • Direct tax on colonists for legal documents and newspapers.
• Tea Act (1773)
  • Aimed to create a monopoly for the British East India Company, threatening colonial merchants and leading to the Boston Tea Party.
• Intolerable Acts (1774)
  • Coercive Acts that limited colonial representation in response to the Boston Tea Party.
• Olive Branch Petition (1775)
  • Last attempt by the colonies to seek peace with King George III, who rejected it and declared the colonies in rebellion.
• Lord Dunmore’s Proclamation (1775)
  • British offer of freedom to slaves who fought against the colonists.
• Declaration of Independence (1776)
  • Justification for independence, outlining natural rights and grievances against King George III and Parliament.
• Treaty of Paris (1783)
  • British recognition of American independence and U.S. control over lands east of the Mississippi River.

Constitutional Period

• Articles of Confederation
  • Loose alliance of states with a weak central government featuring a unicameral legislature that could not tax or regulate interstate commerce.
  • Shays’s Rebellion highlighted its weaknesses.
• Land Ordinance of 1785
  • Established a grid system for townships in the territory north of the Ohio River.
• Northwest Ordinance of 1787
  • Established a process for statehood and prohibited slavery in the Northwest Territory.
• Virginia Plan
  • Proposed a bicameral legislature based on proportional representation, favoring larger states.
• New Jersey Plan
  • Proposed a unicameral legislature with equal representation for each state, favoring smaller states.
• Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise/Plan)
  • Established a bicameral legislature: the House of Representatives based on proportional representation and the Senate with equal representation (2 senators per state).
• Three-Fifths Compromise
  • Each slave counted as 3/5ths of a person for representation and taxation purposes; slave importation was to end by 1808.
• Bill of Rights
  • The first ten amendments to the Constitution, required by Anti-Federalists for ratification, protecting individual liberties.

George Washington (1789-1797)

• Judiciary Act of 1787
  • Established the lower federal court system with district courts in each state.
• First Bank of the United States (1791)
  • Central banking system to establish U.S. credit and manage finances.
  • The nation’s capital was located in the South as a deal for the bank's establishment.
• Eleventh Amendment (1795)
  • Citizens cannot sue another state without the state’s consent.
• Jay’s Treaty (1794)
  • Established American sovereignty in the Northwest Territory and favorable trade status with Britain.
• Pinckney’s Treaty (1795)
  • Spain recognized American trade rights on the Mississippi River and in New Orleans.
• Washington’s Farewell Address (1797)
  • Advised against permanent alliances and the formation of political parties.

John Adams (1797-1801)

• Alien and Sedition Acts (1798)
  • Increased naturalization requirements, allowed for the deportation of enemy aliens, and prohibited criticism of the federal government.
  • A response to the XYZ Affair, designed to weaken the Democratic-Republicans.
• Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions
  • Reacting to the Alien and Sedition Acts, these established the concept of states’ rights and the nullification of federal laws.
• Judiciary Act of 1801
  • Increased the number of federal court positions, which Adams filled with Federalist “Midnight Judges.”

Age of Jefferson

Thomas Jefferson (1801-1809)

• Marbury v. Madison (1803)
  • Established the principle of judicial review.
• Louisiana Purchase (1803)
  • Acquired land west of the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains from France for $15M$.
• Twelfth Amendment (1804)
  • Revised the Electoral College to use separate ballots for President and Vice President.
• Embargo Act of 1807
  • In response to impressments, it prohibited foreign trade, leading to a recession.

James Madison (1809-1817)

• Nonintercourse Act of 1809
  • Prohibited foreign trade with belligerents, Britain and France.
• Macon’s Bill No. 2 (1810)
  • Prohibited foreign trade with either Britain or France if one promised to cease impressments and seizing American ships.
• Fletcher v. Peck (1810)
  • First case to rule a state law unconstitutional, reinforcing the Contracts Clause.
• Treaty of Ghent (1814)
  • Restored the status quo before the War of 1812.
• Tariff of 1816
  • First major protectionist tariff to promote domestic industries.
• Second Bank of the United States (1816)

James Monroe (1817-1825)

• Rush-Bagot Treaty (1818)
  • Demilitarized the Great Lakes between the U.S. and Great Britain.
• McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)
  • Ruled the Second Bank of the United States as necessary and proper and that Maryland could not tax it, based on the Supremacy Clause.
• Dartmouth College v. Woodard (1819)
  • Upheld the colonial charter of Dartmouth College under the Contracts Clause.
• Adams-Onis Treaty (1819)
  • Spain ceded Florida to the U.S. and established the western U.S. border.
• Missouri Compromise (1820)
  • Missouri admitted as a slave state, Maine as a free state; established the $36^{\prime}30$ line, north of which would be free and south allowing slavery.
• Monroe Doctrine (1823)
  • U.S. declared the Western Hemisphere free from European interference and further colonization.
• Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)
  • Expanded interstate commerce power to include navigation.

John Quincy Adams (1825-1829)

• Tariff of Abominations (Tariff of 1828)
  • High protective tariff that triggered the Nullification Crisis with South Carolina.

Age of Jackson

Andrew Jackson (1829-1837)

• Indian Removal Act of 1830
  • Land-exchange treaties led to the forced relocation of Native Americans east of the Mississippi River, known as the Trail of Tears.
• Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831)
  • Native tribes are not foreign nations but are subject to federal jurisdiction.
• Worcester v. Georgia (1832)
  • States are prohibited from violating the sovereignty of native tribal lands.
• Force Bill (1833)
  • Authorized President Jackson to use military force against South Carolina to enforce the Tariff of 1828, leading to a tariff compromise.
• Specie Circular (1836)
  • Land sales required to be paid in gold or silver, a major cause of the Panic of 1837.

Martin Van Buren (1837-1841)

• Charles River Bridge v. Warren Bridge (1837)
  • States' rights victory; a private contract cannot disadvantage the public.

Antebellum

William Henry Harrison (1841)

John Tyler (1841-1845)

• Commonwealth v. Hunt (1841)
  • The Massachusetts Supreme Court ruled labor unions as legal organizations and strikes as legal action.
• Webster-Ashburton Treaty (1842)
  • Established the northern boundary and Great Lakes border with Great Britain/Canada.
• Texas Annexation (1845)
  • Joint resolution annexing Texas, leading to a border dispute and the Mexican-American War.

James K. Polk (1845-1849)

• Oregon Treaty (1846)
  • Avoided “54’40 or Fight” and established the 49th Parallel boundary in Oregon Territory.
• Wilmot Proviso (1846)
  • Prohibited slavery in the Mexican Cession; rejected.
• Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848)
  • Ended the Mexican-American War; ceded California and the American Southwest for $15M$.

Zachary Taylor (1849-1850)

• Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (1850)
  • Established a joint American-British effort to build a canal in Nicaragua.

Millard Fillmore (1850-1853)

• Compromise of 1850
  • California admitted as a free state, reinforced the Fugitive Slave Law, introduced popular sovereignty in the Mexican Cession, and prohibited the slave trade in D.C.

Franklin Pierce (1853-1857)

• Gadsden Purchase (1853)
  • Acquisition of territory on the U.S.-Mexican border to build a southern transcontinental railroad.
• Ostend Manifesto (1854)
  • Secret negotiation attempting to acquire Cuba from Spain as a slave state.
• Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854)
  • Stephen Douglas negotiated popular sovereignty in the Nebraska and Kansas Territories; virtually dissolved the Missouri Compromise, leading to Bleeding Kansas, the end of the Whig Party, and the beginning of the Republican Party.
• Convention of Kanagawa (1854)
  • As a result of Commodore Perry’s Expedition, opened up trade between Japan and the U.S.

James Buchanan (1857-1861)

• Scott v. Sandford (1857)
  • Ruled that blacks are not citizens, slaves are property, and the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional.
• Lecompton Constitution (1857-1858)
  • Pro-slavery Kansas constitution pushed by Buchanan and rejected by Congress.
• Crittenden Compromise (1860)
  • Last-minute compromise to divide the nation into a free North and a slave South; rejected.

Civil War/Reconstruction

Abraham Lincoln (1861-1865)

• Ex Parte Merryman (1861)
  • Congress, not the President, may suspend habeas corpus.
• Confiscation Acts (1861-1862)
  • Authorized Union generals to confiscate properties (slaves) as a means to free them.
• Trent Affair (1862)
  • A Union ship captured Confederate diplomats on British ships; they were released to avoid war with Britain.
• Morrill Land Grant Act (1862)
  • Created land-grant colleges for agriculture and mechanics education.
• Homestead Act of 1862
  • Sold federal lands for $10$ for $160$ acres with full ownership after five years of improvements.
• Pacific Railway Act (1862)
  • Authorized construction of a railroad between the Union Pacific and Central Pacific Railroads to complete the first transcontinental railroad.
• Emancipation Proclamation (1863)
  • Freed all slaves in Confederate territories.
• Enrollment Act of 1863
  • Conscription allowing for substitutions and $300$ commutations.
• Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction (1863)
  • The Ten Percent Plan, offering pardons for Southerners except leaders and generals.
• Wade-Davis Bill (1864)
  • Required 50% to take the Ironclad Oath.
• Freedmen’s Bureau (1865)
  • Federal government assistance program for displaced former slaves and whites.

Andrew Johnson (1865-1869)

• Thirteenth Amendment (1865)
  • Abolished slavery.
• Ex parte Milligan (1866)
  • Citizens may not be tried in military tribunals if civilian courts are functioning.
• Reconstruction Acts of 1867
  • Former Confederate states placed in military districts and readmission subject to the ratification of the 14th Amendment.
• Alaska Purchase (1867)
  • Acquisition of Alaska from Russia; known as Seward’s Folly or Seward’s Icebox.
• Fourteenth Amendment (1868)
  • Established the Citizen Clause, Due Process Clause, and Equal Protection Clause, applying them to the states; punishments for former Confederate states not applying Civil War amendments; prohibited pardons for Confederate leaders.

Ulysses S. Grant (1869-1877)

• Fifteenth Amendment (1869)
  • Granted the right to vote to black men.
• Slaughterhouse Cases (1873)
  • Privileges and immunities only applied to the federal government, not the states.
• Coinage Act of 1873
  • Removed silver from circulation, known as the “Crime of 1873.”
• Civil Rights Act of 1875
  • Equal protection for Blacks in public accommodations and transportation and prohibited jury service exclusion.
• Munn v. Illinois (1877)
  • States allowed to regulate private businesses in matters of public interest; Granger laws.
• Compromise of 1877
  • Hayes (R) becomes president, and federal troops are removed from the South.

Gilded Age

Rutherford B. Hayes (1877-1881)

• Bland-Allison Act (1878)
  • Reintroduced silver coinage.

Chester A. Arthur (1881-1885)

• Chinese Exclusion Act (1882)
  • Banned Chinese labor immigration for ten years with limitations for other Chinese immigrants.
• Pendleton Act (1883)
  • Established the Civil Service Commission and civil service exams.
• Civil Rights Cases (1883)
  • Ruled the Civil Rights Act of 1875 unconstitutional, allowing segregation by private businesses.

Grover Cleveland (1885-1889)

• Wabash v. Illinois (1886)
  • Limited states in regulating interstate commerce and overruled Munn v. Illinois.
• Interstate Commerce Act (1887)
  • Established the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) to regulate railroad industries.
• Dawes Severalty Act (1887)
  • The federal government provided land grants to individual natives from tribal land and established assimilation programs.

Benjamin Harrison (1889-1893)

• Dependent Pension Act (1890)
  • Provided pensions for Civil War veterans and their dependents.
• Sherman Antitrust Act (1890)
  • Limited trusts and monopolies and unfair competition; primarily used against labor unions.
• Sherman Silver Purchase Act (1890)
  • The federal government purchased silver to increase the money supply due to the Free Silver movement to assist farmers and debtors.
• McKinley Tariff (1890)
  • Record peacetime protectionist tariffs.

Grover Cleveland (1893-1897)

• In re Debs (1895)
  • The federal government's use of federal troops and court injunctions was deemed constitutional in regulating interstate commerce, a result of the Pullman Strike.
• United States v. E.C. Knight Co. (1895)
  • Manufacturing not included in interstate commerce regulation, weakening the Sherman Antitrust Act.
• Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)
  • Established “separate but equal,” legitimizing segregation and Jim Crow laws.

Progressive Era

William McKinley (1897-1901)

• Hawaii Annexation (1898)
• Teller Amendment (1898)
  • The U.S. promised not to acquire Cuba if victorious against Spain.
• Treaty of Paris (1898)
  • Ended the Spanish-American War; the U.S. acquired Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines.
• Open Door Policy (1899)
  • U.S.-led policy to provide equal trade in China among great powers, respecting Chinese territory and spheres of influence.
• Platt Amendment (1901)
  • Allowed American unilateral influence in Cuban affairs and Guantanamo Bay.

Theodore Roosevelt (1901-1909)

• Insular Cases (1901-1903)
  • Constitutional provisions were not applied to territories without Congressional consent; "Constitution does not follow the flag."
• Newlands Reclamation Act (1902)
  • Federally funded irrigation projects for Western states.
• Elkins Act (1903)
  • Prohibited railroad rebates, strengthening the ICC.
• Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty (1903)
  • Established the Panama Canal Zone, allowing the U.S. to construct the Panama Canal.
• Northern Securities Co. v. United States (1904)
  • Prevented the formation of a railroad monopoly.
• Roosevelt Corollary (1904)
  • Expanded the Monroe Doctrine to allow the U.S. to intervene in Latin America to protect American interests.
• Treaty of Portsmouth (1904)
  • Theodore Roosevelt negotiated peace between Japan and Russia after the Russo-Japanese War; won the Nobel Peace Prize.
• Lochner v. New York (1905)
  • Ruled a 10-hour workday for bakers unconstitutional.
• Hepburn Act (1906)
  • Established bookkeeping regulations for railroad industries.
• Pure Food and Drug Act (1906)
  • Prohibited mislabeling on consumer products and medicines.
• Meat Inspection Act (1906)
  • Ensured sanitary conditions in meat processing plants.
• Gentleman’s Agreement
  • Japanese agreed to limit unskilled labor immigration in return for desegregated public schools in California.
• Muller v. Oregon (1908)
  • Women authorized to work shorter hours for maternal reasons.

William Howard Taft (1909-1913)

• Payne-Aldrich Tariff (1909)
  • Increased protectionist tariffs despite the intent to lower tariffs.
• Mann-Elkins Act (1910)
  • Expanded the ICC’s powers to regulate telecommunication industries.
• Standard Oil Company of New Jersey v. United States (1911)
  • Broke up the Standard Oil Trust into 33 companies.
• Lodge Corollary (1912)
  • Extended the Monroe Doctrine to include all foreign powers from interfering in the Western Hemisphere.
• Sixteenth Amendment (1913)
  • Enacted a federal income tax.

Woodrow Wilson (1913-1921)

• Underwood Tariff (1913)
  • Lowered tariffs.
• Federal Reserve Act (1913)
  • Established the Federal Reserve (“The Fed”) to regulate monetary policy.
• Seventeenth Amendment (1913)
  • Direct election of U.S. Senators.
• Federal Trade Commission (1914)
  • Enforces antitrust legislation and promotes consumer protection.
• Clayton Antitrust Act (1914)
  • Reinforced antitrust legislation but was not applied to labor unions.
• Adamson Act (1916)
  • Established an eight-hour workday and overtime for railroad workers.
• Keating-Owen Act (1916)
  • Prohibited the sale of interstate commerce goods produced by companies using child labor.
• Selective Service Act of 1917
  • Authorized the government to draft men for World War I without substitutions.
• Espionage Act of 1917
  • Prohibited interference in military operations and the draft, support for enemies, and promoting insubordination.
• Sedition Act of 1918
  • Forbade disloyal, profane, scurrilous, or abrasive language about the U.S. government.
• Hammer v. Dagenhart (1918)
  • Determined the Keating-Owen Act unconstitutional.
• Schenk v. United States (1918)
  • Freedom of Speech is not absolute if it presents a “clear and present danger.”
• Fourteen Points (1918-1919)
  • Promoted self-determination, free trade, freedom of the seas, and a League of Nations.
• Eighteenth Amendment (1919)
  • Prohibited the manufacturing, sale, and transportation of alcohol.
• Volsteadt Act (1919)
  • Enforced Prohibition and the 18th Amendment.
• Nineteenth Amendment (1920)
  • Granted women suffrage.

Roaring Twenties

Warren G. Harding (1921-1923)

• Emergency Quota Act (1921)
  • Quota of 3% of 1910 Census immigrant populations.
• Fordney-McCumber Tariff (1922)
  • Increased peacetime protectionist tariffs.
• Washington Naval Conference (1922-1923)
  • Five Power Treaty: naval armament limitations: $5:5:3:1.75:1.75$ applied to the U.S., Great Britain, Japan, France, and Italy.

Calvin Coolidge (1923-1929)

• National Origins Act (1924)
  • Quota of 2% of 1890 Census immigrant populations.
• Mellon’s Tax Bill
  • Revenue Acts of 1924, 1926, 1928: Decreased tax rates for business and the upper class to support trickle-down economics.
• Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928)
  • International agreement outlawing war as an offensive measure.

Herbert Hoover (1929-1933)

• Federal Farm Board (1929)
  • Designed to stabilize and lower prices by holding on farm surpluses.
• Smoot-Hawley Tariff (1930)
  • Record high protectionist tariff leading to retaliatory tariffs from other nations.
• Reconstruction Finance Corporation (1932)
  • Federal-backed loans for banks and corporations to stimulate the economy.

Great Depression/New Deal/World War II

Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933-1945)

• Twentieth Amendment (1933)
  • Lame-duck amendment moving inauguration from March to January.
• Emergency Banking Relief Act (1933)
  • The federal government shut down banks, examined solvency, and opened strong banks to ensure consumer confidence as part of the Bank Holiday.
• Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) (1933)
  • The federal government hired young men on conservation projects to provide income to families.
• Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) (1933)
  • The federal government provided farmers subsidies to limit production.
• Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) (1933)
  • Federal government-backed private corporation to develop Tennessee Valley infrastructure, creating jobs, building dams, and generating cheap electricity.
• National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) (1933)
  • Established the NRA to enforce business codes for fair competition and the PWA to provide state and local relief jobs.
• Glass-Steagall Act (1933)
  • Established banking regulation and the Federal Depository Insurance Corporation (FDIC) to insure commercial deposits and prevent bank runs.
• Twenty-First Amendment (1933)
  • Repealed Prohibition and the 18th Amendment.
• Securities Exchange Commission (SEC) (1934)
  • Established stock market regulations.
• Federal Housing Administration (FHA) (1934)
  • The federal government backed low-interest mortgages.
• Indian Reorganization Act (1934)
  • Reversal of the Dawes Severalty Act, returning to local self-government for individual tribes.
• Schecter Poultry Corp. v. United States (1935)
  • Ruled the NIRA unconstitutional in violation of the Congressional interstate commerce power delegated to the executive branch.
• Works Progress Administration (WPA) (1935)
  • Federally funded state and local infrastructure projects and humanities projects (Federal One).
• National Youth Administration (NYA) (1935)
  • Federally funded part-time jobs for students.
• Rural Electrification Administration (REA)
  • Federally funded effort to electrify the rural sector through private electric companies.
• Social Security Act (1935)
  • Federal social insurance program for retired workers, disabled, and dependents, funded through payroll taxes.
• Wagner Act (1935)
  • Legitimized collective bargaining for labor unions.
• Neutrality Acts (1935, 1937)
  • Proclaimed neutrality, prohibited loans to belligerent nations, and established cash-and-carry.
• United States v. Butler (1936)
  • AAA ruled unconstitutional in violation of Reserved Powers of the 10th Amendment.
• Justice Reorganization Bill (1937)
  • Roosevelt’s court-packing scheme to appoint more New Deal-friendly justices.
• Fair Labor Standards Act (1938)
  • Legalized an 8-hour workday, overtime compensation, a national minimum wage, and prohibited child labor.
• Hatch Act (1939)
  • Restricted civil service employees from partisan political activity.
• Neutrality Act of 1939
  • Cash-and-carry provisions applied to belligerent nations (France and Britain).
• Selective Service Act of 1940
  • First peacetime conscription for males aged 21-35, eventually 18-65 during the war.
• Destroyers-for-Bases (1940)
  • Old American warships exchanged to Britain for land rights in British territories.
• Lend-Lease Act (1941)
  • The U.S. provided loans and war materials to Allied nations during World War II.
• Executive Order 9066
  • Authorized the internment of Japanese immigrants and Japanese-Americans.
• Servicemen’s Readjustment Act (G.I. Bill) (1944)
  • Provided federally funded college or vocational education for veterans.
• Korematsu v. United States (1944)
  • Japanese internment camps ruled constitutional as a wartime measure.
• Smith v. Allwright (1944)
  • Ruled white primaries unconstitutional.

Post-World War II

Harry S. Truman (1945-1953)

• Taft-Hartley Act (1947)
  • Restricted labor unions by outlawing closed shops and requiring prior notification of strikes.
• National Security Act (1947)
  • Reorganized the military under the Department of Defense and established the National Security Council and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA).
• Executive Order 9981 (1948)
  • Desegregation of the federal government and military.
• NSC-68 (1950)
  • Recommended a foreign policy concentrated on an expanded military and government to contain communism.
• Twenty-Second Amendment (1951)
  • Established a limit of two presidential terms.

Dwight D. Eisenhower (1953-1961)

• Brown v. Board of Education (1954)
  • Desegregation of schools, overruling “separate but equal.”
• Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956
  • Authorized the construction of the Interstate Highway System.
• Civil Rights Act of 1957
  • Enforced voting rights for blacks.
• Civil Rights Act of 1960
  • Reinforced the voting rights provisions of the Civil Rights Act of 1960.

Great Society/Civil Rights Era

John F. Kennedy (1961-1963)

• Twenty-Third Amendment (1961)
  • The District of Columbia was granted three electoral votes in presidential elections.
• Mapp v. Ohio (1961)
  • Unreasonable searches and seizures (4th Amendment) applied to the states.
• Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)
  • Accused must be provided counsel (6th Amendment).
• Clean Air Act (1963)
  • Authorized a federal government agency to monitor air pollution.

Lyndon Johnson (1963-1969)

• Twenty-Fourth Amendment (1964)
  • Prohibited poll taxes.
• Gulf of Tonkin Resolution (1964)
  • Joint resolution authorizing President Johnson to use any conventional force to assist South Vietnam against the Viet Cong.
• Civil Rights Act of 1964
  • Outlawed major forms of discrimination based on race, gender, ethnicity, religion, and nationality.
• Voting Rights Act of 1965
  • Outlawed various disenfranchisement laws and enforced the 15th Amendment.
• Immigration Act of 1965
  • Rescinded the quota laws.
• Elementary and Secondary Education Act (1965)
  • Provided federal funding for public and private education.
• Social Security Act of 1965
  • Established Medicare (health care for the elderly) and Medicaid (health care for low-income families).
• National Foundation on the Arts and Humanities Act (1965)
  • Federal grants to promote fine arts and humanities projects.
• Miranda v. Arizona (1966)
  • Accused must be made aware of their rights prior to arrest and interrogation.
• Twenty-Fifth Amendment (1967)
  • Presidential succession.
• Public Broadcasting Act (1967)
  • Established the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) and National Public Radio (NPR) for non-commercial programming.
• Civil Rights Act of 1968/Fair Housing Act (1968)
  • Prohibited discrimination in acquiring property.
• Bilingual Education Act (1968)
  • Provided federal grants to assist local and state governments to implement education programs for non-English-speaking students.

Contemporary Era

Richard Nixon (1969-1974)

• Tinker v. Des Moines (1969)
  • Black armbands protesting the Vietnam Conflict protected as symbolic speech.
• Vietnamization (1969-1975)
  • Policy to assist South Vietnamese in taking over military operations and reduce U.S. involvement in Vietnam.
• Reorganization Plan No. 3 (1970)
  • Established the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
• Occupational Safety and Health Act (1970)
  • Established the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).
• **Twenty-Sixth Amendment (1971