Cultural Hegemony and Cultural Studies

Etymology of Hegemony:
- Ancient Greece: Politico-military dominance of a city-state over others (e.g., Hellenic League).
- 19th Century: Geopolitical and cultural predominance of one country over others (e.g., European colonialism).
- 20th Century: Cultural domination by a ruling class in a stratified society, achieved by manipulating the dominant ideology to impose a worldview justifying the status quo.
Historical Context:
- Karl Marx (1848): Predicted proletarian revolution due to capitalism's contradictions, leading to a socialist restructuring of society and transition to communism. Economic base determines social superstructure (culture and politics).
- Antonio Gramsci: Proposed a distinction between:
  - War of Position: Intellectual and cultural struggle to create a proletarian culture that counters bourgeois cultural hegemony.
  - War of Manoeuvre: Political warfare of revolutionary socialism, enabled by the political power and popular support gained from winning the war of position.

Definition: The prevailing cultural norms of a society are imposed by the ruling class (bourgeois cultural hegemony) and are seen as artificial social constructs that maintain class domination.
Praxis of Knowledge: Investigating the philosophic roots of these constructs is essential for the intellectual and political liberation of the proletariat.
Working-Class Culture: Workers and peasants can create their own culture to address their social and economic needs.

Cultural Awareness: The extent to which a company needs to understand global cultures depends on its level of global involvement.
- Companies operating globally need a higher degree of cultural awareness.
- Building cultural awareness becomes more essential when moving outward on multiple axes (e.g., handling foreign operations and operating in many foreign countries).
Ethnocentrism:
- The belief that one's own culture is superior to others which can lead to overlooking important factors in business.
- Focusing only on home-country objectives can reduce international competitiveness.
- Assuming that changes can be achieved effortlessly may lead to resistance and increased costs.

Levels of Depth:
- Symbols (superficial).
- Heroes and Rituals (intermediate).
- Values (deepest).
Symbols: Words, gestures, pictures, or objects with particular meanings recognized within a culture. They evolve and are often copied.
Heroes: Persons (real or fictitious) who possess characteristics highly prized in a culture and serve as models for behavior.
Rituals: Collective activities that are socially essential but may be superfluous in achieving desired objectives (e.g., greetings, ceremonies).
Values: Broad tendencies for preferences of certain states of affairs over others (e.g., good vs. evil, right vs. wrong). They are often unconscious and inferred from behavior.
Practices:
- Symbols, heroes, and rituals are tangible aspects, but the true cultural meaning is intangible and understood by insiders.

Levels of Mental Programming:
- National level.
- Regional level (ethnic, linguistic, religious differences).
- Gender level.
- Generation level.
- Social class level (educational opportunities, occupation).
- Corporate level (organizational culture).

Operationalization: Variables can be measured using single- or composite-measure techniques.
Hofstede's Dimensions: A composite-measure technique to measure cultural differences:
- Power Distance Index: Measures the degree of inequality in a society.
- Uncertainty Avoidance Index: Measures the extent to which a society feels threatened by uncertainty.
- Individualism Index: Measures the extent to which a society is individualistic versus collectivistic.
- Masculinity Index: Measures the extent to which dominant values are assertiveness, money, and achievement versus caring for others and quality of life.

Cultural Awareness:
- Identify cultural differences between home country and country of business operation.
- Decide to what extent home-country practices can be adapted.
- Discussions and reading about other cultures can help, but opinions must be carefully measured to avoid stereotypes.
Clustering Cultures: Grouping countries by similarities in values and attitudes.
Determining the Extent of Global Involvement: Assessing the degree to which a company needs to understand global cultures.

Definition: The position that there are no moral absolutes; right and wrong are based on social norms.
Inconsistency: Relativism is inconsistent since it would deny beliefs of absolute values.
Ethics and Society: Ethical patterns help bring stability to society. Ethical relativism undermines that structure.

Definition: The view that all beliefs, customs, and ethics are relative to the individual within his own social context.
Acceptance in Anthropology: Cultural relativism is widely accepted in modern anthropology.

Definition: The practice of promoting and imposing a culture, usually of politically powerful nations, over less potent societies.
Forms:
- Media.
- Fashion.
- New technologies.
- Goods.
- Promotion of Western lifestyles.
Criticisms: May lead to the extinction of cultures and less cultural diversity.

Transnationalization: Cultural products extend in space to emerge in a global area, affecting identity and sense of belonging.
Technological Progress (Internet):
- Cable and internet offer means to reconstitute communities for migrants and those in their countries.
- Internet is a symbol of and a vehicle for the development of the future mediatic landscape.
  Education: is a common point between globalization and culture. Modernity succeeded in influencing he issues studied in school
  that are considered outdated in the modern global sphere.

Definition: The anxiety, frustration, alienation, and anger that may occur when a person is placed in a new culture.
Phases:
- Honeymoon.
- Negotiation.
- Adjustment.
- Mastery.
Symptoms: Health issues, difficulty concentrating, irritability.
Coping Strategies:
- Keep in touch with home.
- Have familiar things around.
- Find familiar food.
- Exercise regularly.
- Make friends with international and local students.
- Take advantage of institutional support.
- Link with a faith community.
- Investigate student unions and societies.

Modernity vs. Tradition: There is a continuation of economic blocking with its effect of unemployment on university graduates, which contributes to the disappointment.
Islamic Speech in the Maghreb: Finds a popular support to reach against modernity especially schools which incorporates the aspirations of commitment into the way towards modernity.
- Modern Education: Is failing, countrymen do not send children to school any more.
Integration to requirements of modernity: The respect, dignity and esteem of the family in general remain intact, the pupil is a reformist rather than revolutionary.
Education: It is necessary to realize the threats of the rural life, as for example the dangers of the erosion of the soil, monoculture and the biologic subjects .

Cosmopolitanism, interconnectedness, and world interdependence are increasing. While cultures must protect their heritage, those cultures live in an ever changing world where old rules die and new ones emerge, creating multicultural societies
Identity must be understood in terms of politics of localization, statements, and not what was but as construction of what has the opportunity of what can be.