Ap human geo notes

Page 1: 5 Themes of Geography

• Location

  • Relative Location: Describes a place in relation to other places.

  • Absolute Location: Identified by latitude and longitude.

• Place

  • Characterized by physical and human characteristics unique to an area.

• Human-Environment Interaction

  • Examines how humans adapt to, modify, and depend on their environment.

• Movement

  • Refers to the mobility of people, goods, and ideas which shapes interactions and the connectivity of places.

• Regions

  • Areas defined by specific criteria displaying one or more distinct characteristics.

Physical and Human Geography

• Physical Geography:

  • Examines topography, climate (Köppen), flora, fauna, soil.

• Human Geography:

  • Investigates culture, population, economic factors, political systems, urbanization.

Distortion in Mapping

• Types of Distortion:

  • Shape: Altered shapes of landforms.

  • Direction: Changes in directional relationships.

  • Distance: Inaccurate representations of distances.

  • Relative Size: Misrepresentation of sizes of areas or features.

Page 2: Thematic Maps

• Isoline Maps:

  • Represent data using lines connecting points of equal value, e.g., elevation.

• Choropleth Maps:

  • Thematic representation by shading or coloring areas.

• Graduated Symbol Maps:

  • Use symbols of varying sizes to indicate intensity or frequency.

• Dot Maps:

  • Frequency representation through dots.

• Cartograms:

  • Size of political units manipulated to display data values.

Climate Influences: LACEMOPS

• L - Latitude:

  • Temperature variations increase with distance from the equator.

• A - Air Masses:

  • Interaction of cold polar and warm tropical air affects temperature.

• C - Continentality:

  • Inland areas typically have more extreme weather than coastal.

• E - Elevation:

  • Variation in temperature; temp decreases 3.5°F per 1,000 ft increase.

• M - Mountain Barriers:

  • Affect precipitation; windward sides are wet, leeward are dry (rain shadow effect).

• O - Ocean Currents:

  • Influence temperature and precipitation patterns.

• P - Pressure Cells:

  • High pressure (cold, heavy air) vs low pressure (warm, light air).

• S - Storms:

  • Interaction of air masses leading to storms; cyclones spin differently in hemispheres.

Page 3: Migration Patterns

• Pressure Systems:

  • High pressure indicates cold; low pressure indicates heat.

• Desert Formation:

  • High and dry conditions; deserts usually located at specific latitudes.

• Migration Trends:

  • Women migrate more within countries; men more between countries.

  • Migrants are primarily adults; families less likely to migrate due to logistics.

  • Cities grow significantly via migration rather than natural increase.

  • Economic factors drive migration trends, especially rural to urban transitions.

Map Projections:

• Goode's Homolosine:

  • Minimally distorts land area; suitable for thematic representation.

• Conic Projection:

  • Accurate distances and directions for small zones.

• Planar Projection:

  • Best for central points; shows half the Earth accurately.

• Mercator Projection:

  • Distorts shapes/sizes of landmasses; effective for sea navigation.

• Robinson Projection:

  • Balances distortion in shapes, sizes, and directions.

• Gall-Peters Projection:

  • Accurate sizes of land masses; incorrect distances.

• Fuller Projection:

  • Preserves size/shape accuracy; neglects cardinal directions.

• Winkel Tripel Projection:

  • More rounded, with reduced distortion at the poles.

Page 4: Economic Descriptions of Countries

• Primary Sector:

  • Countries focused on extracting resources (e.g., agriculture, mining).

• Secondary Sector:

  • Manufacturing and refining countries.

• Tertiary Sector:

  • Service-oriented economies.

• Quaternary Sector:

  • Knowledge-based services and information management.

Economic Classification of Countries

• MDC (Most Developed Countries):

  • Includes the U.S., Canada, Japan, etc.

• NIC (Newly Industrialized Countries):

  • Includes China, India, Brazil, etc.

• LDC (Least Developed Countries):

  • Includes Angola, Benin, and others.

Key Vocabulary

• Cartography:

  • The science of making maps.

• Reference Maps:

  • Represent geographical features without political data.

• Map Scale:

  • Relationship between a distance on map and the corresponding distance on Earth.

  • Small Scale: Covers larger area, less detail.

  • Large Scale: Covers smaller area, more detail.

• Scale of Analysis:

  • How data is organized spatially on maps.

• Scale of Inquiry:

  • Determining best scale of analysis for specific topics.

Page 5: Types of Distances

• Absolute Distance:

  • Measured in concrete terms (miles, kilometers).

• Relative Distance:

  • Qualitative measures (e.g. travel time).

• Clustering:

  • Arrangement of objects in proximity.

• Dispersal:

  • Spread of objects over distance.

Geographic Definitions

• Meridians:

  • Lines of longitude from North to South pole.

• Parallels:

  • Lines of latitude running parallel to the equator.

• Time Zones:

  • 24 total; 15 degrees of longitude for one hour's time difference.

• Greenwich Mean Time (GMT):

  • Reference point for global timekeeping.

• GPS:

  • Global Positioning System for location identification.

• GIS:

  • Geographic Information Systems for data layering and spatial analysis.

Geographical Terms: Site & Situation

• Site:

  • Physical characteristics of a place.

• Situation:

  • Location relative to surroundings.

• Formal Region:

  • Area with common traits (political, climate).

• Functional Region:

  • Central node with characteristic spread.

• Perceptual Region:

  • Subjective beliefs about a region based on cultural identity.

Page 6: Spatial Distribution

• Density:

  • Frequency of occurrence in space.

• Concentration:

  • Spatial spread of phenomena.

• Patterns:

  • Geometrical arrangements of occurrences.

Diffusion Types

• Relocation Diffusion:

  • Spread through movement of people.

• Expansion Diffusion:

  • Additive spread of features.

  • Hierarchical: Diffusion through authority nodes.

  • Contagious: Rapid spread throughout a population.

  • Stimulus: Underlying principle spreads, but characteristic adapts.

  • Reverse Hierarchical: Lower class traits moving to higher classes.

• Distance Decay:

  • Decrease in connection with increasing distance.

Wallerstein's Core-Periphery Model

• Core Countries:

  • Developed nations (North America, Western Europe).

• Peripheral Countries:

  • Less developed nations (Africa, parts of Asia).

• Semi-Periphery Countries:

  • Developing countries with varying economic structures (Brazil, China).

Page 7: Temporal Connectivity

• Space-Time Compression:

  • Reduction in travel time, increasing connectivity among locations.

• Flow:

  • Movement of people, ideas, goods between places.

Stability Pillars

• Environmental:

  • Balancing conservation and resource use.

• Economic:

  • Pricing that considers environmental costs.

• Society:

  • Values and wants should align with sustainability.

Environmental Theories

• Environmental Determinism:

  • Environmental factors heavily influence social development.

• Possibilism:

  • Humans can adapt to and modify their environment.

Weather and Climate Definitions

• Weather:

  • Short-term atmospheric conditions.

• Precipitation:

  • Moisture falling from the sky (rain, snow).

• Climate:

  • Long-term averages of weather patterns over time.

• Qualitative Data:

  • Opinion-based, non-measurable.

Demographic Data Collection

• Census:

  • Official population count and collection of geographic data.

Page 8: Global Population Distribution

• Major population clusters found in:

  • East Asia:

    • Includes China and adjacent countries.

  • South Asia:

    • Includes India, Pakistan, Bangladesh.

  • Southeast Asia:

    • Includes Indonesia and nearby islands.

  • Europe:

    • High density, many countries.

Characteristics of Population Clusters

• Site conditions include low-lying areas, fertile soils, temperate climates, access to water bodies.

• Sparsely Populated Regions:

  • Harsh conditions found in deserts, tundras, or too cold/hot regions.

Demographic Transition Model (DMT)

• Stage 1: Low Growth:

  • High birth and death rates; no natural increase.

• Stage 2: High Growth:

  • Decline in death rate and high birth rate; natural increase.

• Stage 3: Moderate Growth:

  • Declining birth rates; growth still positive but slower.

• Stage 4: Low Growth:

  • Low birth and death rates; population stabilization.

Possible Stage 5: Decline

• Features low birth rates, rising death rates, result in negative natural increase rates.

Epidemiologic Transition Model (ETM)

• Stage 1: Pestilence, famine.

• Stage 2: Decline in pandemics.

• Stage 3: Degenerative diseases become more prominent.

• Stage 4: Delayed degenerative diseases resulting in longer life spans.

• Possible Stage 5: Resistance development to treatments; pandemic resurgence.

Page 9: Healthcare Systems

• Developed Countries:

  • Public services with low or no costs; government-funded care.

• Developing Countries:

  • Individuals often pay for much of their care, differing global availability.

Declining Birth Rate Factors

• Education and healthcare improvements.

• Access to contraception, often conflicting with cultural/religious norms.

Page 10: Population Policies

• Pro-Natalist Policies:

  • Encourage births, incentivize families to have children (USSR, Germany).

• Anti-Natalist Policies:

  • Limit births through penalties incentivizing fewer children (e.g., China’s one-child policy).

Ravenstein’s 11 Laws of Migration

• Key Laws:

1. Most migrants travel short distances.

2. Migration occurs in steps.

3. Long-distance migrants favor big cities.

4. Each migration stream creates a counter stream.

5. Rural populations migrate more than urban.

6. Women are more migratory within countries, men between countries.

7. Most migrants are adults, not families.

8. Large cities grow via migration more than natural increase.

9. Migration increases with commerce and transport improvements.

10. Major migration stream is from rural to urban areas.

11. Economic factors drive migration.

Page 11: Eras of US Immigration

• Colonial Era:

  • 17th and 18th-century European and Sub-Saharan African migrations.

• Late 19th Century:

  • Mass immigration from Northern and Western Europe, then Southern and Eastern Europe.

• Late 20th Century:

  • Immigration from Asia and Latin America.

Countries by Land Area

• Largest: Russia, Canada, China, US, Brazil.

Forced Migration Types:

• Refugees:

  • Escaped threats, cannot return due to fear.

• Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs):

  • Similar to refugees but have not crossed international borders.

• Asylum Seekers:

  • Individuals seeking refuge in another country.

Page 12: Unit Vocabulary

• Ecumene:

  • Area of permanent human settlement.

• Colonialism and Imperialism:

  • Policies of establishing settlements and exerting political/economic control.

• Carrying Capacity:

  • Max population an environment can sustain.

• Agricultural Density:

  • Ratio of farmers to arable land; affected by technology.

• Arithmetic Density:

  • Total population divided by total land area.

• Physiological Density:

  • Population supported by arable land.

Page 13: Population Metrics

• Crude Birth Rate (CBR):

  • Births per 1,000 people.

• Crude Death Rate (CDR):

  • Deaths per 1,000 people.

• Natural Increase Rate (NIR):

  • CBR - CDR; percentage change.

• Infant Mortality Rate (IMR):

  • Deaths of infants under 1 per 1,000 live births.

• Total Fertility Rate (TFR):

  • Average number of children per woman.

• Life Expectancy:

  • Average years a newborn is expected to live.

• Doubling Time:

  • Time taken for a population to double.

• Dependency Ratio:

  • Ratio of dependents to working-age population.

• Sex Ratio:

  • Number of males per 100 females.

• Malthusian Theory:

  • Population vs food supply growth theory.

Page 14: Migration Concepts

• Immigration:

  • Permanent move to another country.

• Emigration:

  • Leaving one area to move elsewhere.

• Intervening Obstacles and Opportunities:

  • Factors preventing or facilitating migration.

• Critical Distance:

  • Distance beyond willingness to travel.

• Minority-Majority:

  • Minorities surpassing the majority in numbers.

• Gravity Model:

  • Attraction towards larger communities.

• Step Migration:

  • Gradual process of migrating with stops.

• Chain Migration:

  • Family members sponsoring immigration.

Page 15: Migration Patterns

• Intraregional Migration:

  • Movement within one region.

• Interregional Migration:

  • Movement between different regions.

• Local Tensions and Migration:

  • Racial tensions influenced by migration patterns.

Page 16: Cultural Assimilation vs. Folk Culture

• Folk Culture:

  • Traditional practices tied to a localized group.

• Popular Culture:

  • Contemporary, often global, cultural practices.

Page 17: Folklore and Traditions

• Folk Music:

  • Anonymously created, evolves through oral tradition.

• Folk Clothing:

  • Influenced by agricultural practices and climate.

Page 18: Cultural Diffusion Barriers

• Age Barriers:

  • Resistance amongst older generations to new trends or norms.

• Linguistic Barriers:

  • Language differences obstruct understanding and communication.

• Religious Barriers:

  • Cultural practices restricted by religious beliefs.

Page 19: Dietary Restrictions

• Taboo:

  • Cultural prohibitions against certain foods (e.g., pork in Muslim cultures).

Chapter 20: Language Structures

• Language Families:

  • Groups of languages sharing a common ancestor (e.g., Indo-European).

• Language Branches:

  • Categories within a family (e.g., Germanic, Romance).

• Language Groups:

  • Languages in a branch sharing a more recent common origin.

Page 21: Major Language Families

• Indo-European:

  • Dominant in Europe, South Asia, and the Americas.

• Sino-Tibetan:

  • Primary language family in China, majorly Mandarin.

• Afro-Asiatic:

  • Includes Arabic, major in Northern Africa and the Middle East.

• Niger-Congo:

  • Includes Swahili and several regional languages across Africa.

Page 22: Language and Dialects in the US

• U.S. Regions and Dialects:

  • Represent diverse linguistic backgrounds influencing local vernaculars.

Page 23: Universalizing vs. Ethnic Religions

• Universalizing Religions:

  • Religions seeking global adherence (e.g., Christianity, Islam).

• Ethnic Religions:

  • Tied to a specific ethnic group and locality (e.g., Hinduism).

Page 24: Major Religious Branches

• Christianity:

  • Divisions: Catholicism, Protestantism, Orthodoxy.

• Islam:

  • Branches: Sunni and Shiite, based on leadership succession.

• Buddhism:

  • Different schools vary in practices and teachings.

• Hinduism:

  • Largest ethnic religion, diverse beliefs and practices.

Page 25: Sites of Worship and Funeral Practices

• Hindu and Jewish Funeral Practices:

  • Rituals align with cultural and religious beliefs; e.g., cremation in Hinduism.

Page 26: Conflicts Caused by Religion

• Irish Religious Conflicts:

  • Tensions between Catholic and Protestant communities.

• Middle East Religions:

  • Historical and political significance of Jerusalem to multiple faiths.

Page 27: Migration Patterns and Discrimination

• African American Migration:

  • Historically influenced by economic and political factors, including the Great Migration.

Page 28: Cultural Appropriation and Relativity

• Cultural Appropriation:

  • Adopted practices by dominant cultures without permission.

• Cultural Relativism:

  • Assessing cultures through their own standards without bias.

Page 29: Ethnicities and Nationality

• Ethnic Cleansing:

  • Forceful removal of an ethnic group from a region.

• Genocide:

  • Deliberate mass extermination of a particular ethnic group.

• Nationalism:

  • Advocacy for political independence for a particular cultural group.

Page 30: Unit 4 Notes:

• Devolution:

  • Movement of power from central to regional governments due to ethnic or economic interests.

State Morphologies

• Shapes of States:

  • Include compact, elongated, prorupted, perforated, and fragmented.

Gerrymandering and Political Boundaries

• Gerrymandering:

  • Manipulating electoral district boundaries to favor a party.

Page 31: International Relations

• Core-Periphery Model:

  • Wallerstein's model categorizing countries.

Page 32: Political Organizations

• UN:

  • Aims to promote peace worldwide and facilitate international dialogue.

Page 33: Economic Organizations

• EU:

  • Promotes economic cooperation in Europe.

Page 34: Vocabulary on Political Status

• State vs Nation-State:

  • Distinction between a political unit and a cultural group.

Page 35: Definitions of Key Concepts

• Primate City:

  • A city at least twice the size of the next largest city in the country.

Page 36: Geographic Conflict

• Physical Boundaries:

  • Include desert, mountain, and water features.

Page 37: Boundary Disputes

• Types of Conflicts:

  • Positional, territorial, resource, and functional.

Page 38: Urban Development

• Urban Models:

  • Theoretical frameworks explaining city structures.

Page 39: Major Features of Urban Areas

• Edge Cities:

  • Suburban areas with modern offices, hotels, residential spaces.

Page 40: Urbanization Patterns

• Gentrification:

  • Renovation of neighborhoods leading to increased property values and displacement of lower-income residents.

Page 41: Key Urban Theories

• Central Place Theory:

  • Set framework analyzing locations of human settlements.

Page 42: Development and Ecology

• Environmental Sustainability:

  • Practices that conserve resources while maintaining ecological balance.

Page 43: Global Agricultural Trends

• Food Systems:

  • Trends toward sustainable, organic, and locally sourced practices.

Page 44: Economic Structures

• Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, Quaternary Industries:

  • Classification by service type and production.

Page 45: Challenges of Agriculture

• Agricultural Revolutions:

  • Shifts in methods and technologies from traditional to modern practices.

Page 46: Farming Types

• Extensive vs. Intensive:

  • Differentiation based on labor input and land area used.

Page 47: Urban Planning

• Agrarian Strategies:

  • The evolving methods of agricultural production in response to market demands.

Page 48: Economic Development Decisions

• Indicators for Growth:

  • Determining metrics used to gauge development levels.

Page 49: Networking in Development

• Foreign Aid Programs and Investment:

  • Economic ties playing a role in growth prospects for NICs.

Page 50: Economic Models

• Wallerstein's World-Systems Theory:

  • Model explaining the interconnectedness of different economies.

Page 51: GNI and GDP Measures

• Economic Performance Measurements:

  • How nations gauge income and resource allocation.

Page 52: Urban Sustainability Issues

• Balancing Economic Growth with Quality of Life:

  • Challenges urban areas face in maintaining situational balance.

Page 53: Modern Trends in Economics

• Globalization:

  • Worldwide integration of markets and cultures affecting local economies.

Page 54: Economic Disparities

• Income Inequality:

  • Variation in income levels within and between countries.

Page 55: Patterns of Growth and Influence

• Indicators of Progress:

  • Assessment measures for evaluating growth across sectors.

Page 56: Economic Risks and Challenges

• Long-term Consequences of Market Changes:

  • How market fluctuations impact societal well-being.

Page 57: Industrial Location Theory

• Factor-Reduction Strategies:

  • Optimal placement of industries for efficiency.

Page 58: Urban and Economic Structures

• Networking in Trade and Business:

  • Collaborating on projects and investments within city limits.

Page 59: Urban Models and Concepts

• Continued Influences in Urban Development:

  • Factors shaping modern urban landscapes.

Page 60: Trends in Urban Planning

• Future Implications for City Growth and Development:

  • Considerations for long-term livability in urban areas.

Page 61: Cultural Indicators in Urban Areas

• Community Cohesion and Cultural Identity:

  • Patterns indicating local histories and modern activities.

Page 62: Gentrification and City Growth

• Recommendations for Sustainable City Management:

  • Long-term strategies for inclusive urban development.

Page 63: Ethnic Diversity and Urbanization

• Impacts of Migration on Urban Areas:

  • Effects of increased diversity on local ecosystems.

Page 64: Economic Growth and Sustainability

• Strategies for Balancing Development and Environmental Integrity:

  • Innovative practices to advance sustainability in urban contexts.