Foundations, Dynamics, and Physical Features of Geography

Foundations of Geography

Les Fondements (Foundations)

• These are the essential elements upon which the rest of geographical study is built.
  • $1^{st}$ Foundation: Antiquity / Middle Ages (first half)
    • Characterized by the description and inventory of places, particularly those that were distant.
    • Geographers identified and described locations.
    • This period saw the era of great explorations, which in turn led to the perfection of cartography.
    • $19^{th}$ century (second half) / $20^{th}$ century:
      • The exploration of the planet was largely completed.
      • This led to a very significant epistemological crisis, as geography had to seek new solutions beyond mere description.
      • Geography began to transform, shifting its focus from describing human-created spaces to explaining them.
      • During this period, geography truly became a scientific discipline.
  • $2^{nd}$ Foundation: Science of Space and Societies
    • This foundation involves providing the initial explanations for the spatial data and societal interactions that were previously inventoried.
    • These explanations are often based on historical data and past observations.
  • $3^{rd}$ Foundation: Science of Territories
    • This foundation emphasizes fundamental knowledge crucial for the planning, management, and development of specific territories.

La Géographie (Geography)

• Definition: "The object of geography is the knowledge of the work that is the production and organization of space."

La Démarche Géographique (The Geographical Approach/Methodology)

This methodical approach guides geographical studies:

• $1.$ Phase descriptive (Descriptive Phase):
  • Involves the observation of different spaces.
• $2.$ Phase de recherche (Research Phase):
  • Focuses on gathering information using various geographical tools.
• $3.$ Mise en relation des informations (Information Integration Phase):
  • This stage involves deductions, interpretations, and achieving a comprehensive understanding of the gathered information.
• $4.$ Phase d'appropriation (Appropriation Phase):
  • Culminates in a synthesis of findings and the production of a research report.

Une Approche à Diverses Échelles (A Multi-Scale Approach)

• Geographical phenomena can be viewed from multiple perspectives, depending on the scale of analysis chosen.
• Example: Water Supply
  • International scale
  • National scale
  • Regional scale
  • Municipal scale
  • Local scale

Des Champs d'Études Diversifiés (Diversified Fields of Study)

• Géographie physique (Physical Geography):
  • Hydrology (study of watercourses).
  • Glaciology.
  • Oceanography.
• Géographie humaine (Human Geography):
  • Geography of tourism.
  • Geography of health.

Différents Outils (Different Tools)

• Maps, atlases, and tourist guides.
• Geographic Information Systems (GIS).
• Government websites.
• Statistical studies.
• Field observations.

Earth's Physical Features

Reliefs (Landforms)

• Definition: "The difference in height between two points along the horizon line."
• There are $3$ principal types of reliefs:
  • Plaine (Plain)
  • Plateau
  • Montagne (Mountain)
• Plaine (Plain):
  • Definition: "A geographical area characterized by a flat or gently undulating topographical surface where watercourses (when present) are at the same level as the ground, with relatively low exit slopes."
• Plateau (Plateau) - EXAM QUESTION:
  • Definition: "A geographical area characterized by a flat or gently undulating topographical surface, in which watercourses (when present) are incised (^{\text{into the landscape}}), and the exit slopes are steep (^{\text{abrupt}}).
    • "Encaissés" implies the watercourses are 'sort of at the bottom,' cut deeply into the plateau.
    • "Pentes de sorties…côtés ish" refers to the steep, side-like slopes marking the edges of the plateau.
• Montagnes (Mountains):
  • Definition: "A topographical structure with positive relief characterized by:
    • Rugged terrain (relief accidenté).
    • High altitude.
    • Steep slopes (fortes pentes).
    • Significant elevation changes (dénivellations importants).
  • "Altitude du base au sommet" refers to the height measurement from the base to the summit of the mountain.
  • "Dénivellations" describes the elevation difference between any two points, not exclusively from base to summit. A positive denivellation indicates an ascent, while a negative one indicates a descent.
  • Examples: Chic-Chocs Mountains, the Rockies, the Appalachians.
  • Mont Robson is noted as the highest peak in Canada.

Climat (Climate) - EXAM: subdivide (e.g., principal climate of QC)**

• Definition: "Average atmospheric conditions (temperature, precipitations, atmospheric pressure, etc.) calculated over observations of at least $30$ years in a given location."
• Key Characteristics:
  • Values represent long-term averages.
  • Accounts for extreme variations, which are data points outside the ordinary (e.g., a day reaching $34$ degrees Celsius).
• **Climate is influenced by *$7$* factors**:
  • $1.$ La latitude (Latitude): Determines the amount of solar radiation received.
  • $2.$ L'altitude (Altitude/Relief): As a general rule, temperature decreases with increasing altitude (e.g., one loses approximately $0.1$ degree Celsius for increasing height).
  • $3.$ La continentalité et l'océanité (Continentality and Oceanity):
    • Oceanity: The presence of oceans acts as a regulator, absorbing and releasing heat slowly, which moderates temperatures in coastal zones, leading to less extreme variations.
    • Continentalité: Distance from large bodies of water (oceans) accentuates temperature differences, leading to more extreme hot summers and cold winters.
  • $4.$ Les courants marins (Ocean Currents): Both cold and warm ocean currents can significantly warm or cool the climates of adjacent landmasses.
  • $5.$ La pression atmosphérique (Atmospheric Pressure): Impacts precipitation patterns; low pressure often brings precipitation, while high pressure typically brings clear skies.
  • $6.$ Les variations de précipitations (Precipitation Variations): The amount, type, and distribution of precipitation are crucial climatic descriptors.
  • $7.$ Le facteur éolien (Wind Factor): Wind patterns influence weather and climate by transporting air masses, heat, and moisture.
• Les Climats présents au Québec (Climates Present in Quebec):
  • There are $3$ major climatic zones:
    • $1.$ Climat polaire (Polar Climate): Found in the far north of Quebec.
    • $2.$ Climat continental subpolaire (Subpolar Continental Climate): Located in the middle north of Quebec.
    • $3.$ Climat continental froid et humide (Cold and Humid Continental Climate): Prevalent in the southern parts of Quebec.
  • These large zones are further subdivided into smaller climatic sectors, each defined by specific characteristics.

L'hydrographie (Hydrography) - EXAM: Give an example of a closed sea on a map**

• Definition: "The part of geography dedicated to the study and description of the Earth's waters."
• Hiérarchie des étendues de cours d'eau (Hierarchy of Water Bodies):
  • Water bodies are classified from the largest to the smallest:
    • Océans (Oceans)
    • Mers (Seas):
      • Bordières (Marginal Seas): These seas border continents but remain openly connected to the main ocean body (not isolated).
      • Intérieures (Inland/Enclosed Seas): These seas are located within landmasses and communicate with the ocean only through a strait (a narrow passage).
      • Fermées (Closed Seas): These seas are completely isolated from the ocean, having no direct connection.
        • Example: The Caspian Sea.
    • Fleuves (Large Rivers)
    • Rivières/Lacs (Smaller Rivers/Lakes)

Earth's Dynamics: Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics

Dérive des Continents (Continental Drift)

• Proposed by Alfred Wegener, a physicist-meteorologist, at the beginning of the $20^{th}$ century.
• Wegener sought to prove his theory of continental drift.
• Theory of Continental Drift: "In a distant past, all continental landmasses were united in a single mega-continent named Pangaea." (Pangaea literally means 'all lands').
• $4$ "Irrefutable" Proofs Advanced by Wegener:
  • $1.$ Parallélisme des côtes (Parallelism of Coasts): A cartographic argument, observing how the coastlines of continents (e.g., South America and Africa) appear to fit together like puzzle pieces.
  • $2.$ Répartition de certains fossiles (Distribution of Certain Fossils): A paleontological argument, based on finding identical fossil species (such as Mesosaurus and Glossopteris) on continents now separated by vast oceans.
  • $3.$ Traces d'anciennes glaciations (Traces of Ancient Glaciations): A paleoclimatic argument, identifying evidence of ancient glacial deposits in areas that are currently tropical or sub-tropical, suggesting these landmasses were once closer to the poles.
  • $4.$ Correspondances de certaines structures géologiques (Correspondences of Certain Geological Structures): A structural argument, highlighting the matching geological formations, rock compositions, and mountain ranges that align when continents are reassembled (e.g., the Appalachian Mountains of North America correlating with mountains in Scandinavia and Greenland).
• Results of the Demonstration:
  • Wegener's theory initially sparked strong opposition within the scientific community.
  • The primary reasons for this opposition were his inability to adequately explain the mechanism driving the continental drift and a lack of information at the time regarding the Earth's internal structure.

Tectonique des Plaques (Plate Tectonics)

• Theory of Plate Tectonics: "A theory according to which the Earth's crust is cut into different plates that gradually move relative to one another."
• Plaque tectonique (Tectonic Plate): A more or less large, rigid, mobile, and relatively undeformable zone of the Earth's lithosphere that floats on the asthenosphere. Importantly, a plate is not synonymous with a continent; continents are embedded within these larger plates.
• Mouvement de Convection (Convection Movement): "Heat from the Earth's core is transferred to the mantle, where hotter, less dense material rises while cooler, denser material sinks. This circulatory movement forms convection currents." These currents are widely accepted as the primary driving force behind the movement of tectonic plates.
• $3$ Types of Movements and Diverse Consequences:
  • $1.$ Mouvements Convergents (Convergent Movements) ($\longrightarrow \longleftarrow$):
    • Occur when two plates move towards each other.
    • Consequences:
      • Formation/creation of oceanic trenches (where one plate subducts beneath another).
      • Formation of certain mountains and mountain ranges (either through continental collision or volcanic activity associated with subduction).
      • Volcanoes (especially along subduction zones).
      • Earthquakes (séismes), often high intensity, due to the immense forces involved in collision and subduction.
  • $2.$ Mouvements Divergents (Divergent Movements) ($\longleftarrow \longrightarrow$):
    • Occur when two plates move away from each other.
    • Consequences:
      • Formation of mid-oceanic ridges (e.g., Mid-Atlantic Ridge).
      • Expansion and creation of new seafloor (seafloor spreading), as magma rises to fill the gap.
      • Earthquakes (séismes), typically less intense than at convergent boundaries, occurring along the spreading centers.
  • $3.$ Mouvements Transformants (Transform Movements) ($\uparrow \downarrow$):
    • Occur when two plates slide horizontally past each other.
    • Consequences:
      • No formation of new relief (neither creation nor destruction of crust), unlike convergent or divergent boundaries.
      • Characterized by significant earthquakes (séismes) as stress builds up and is released along transform faults.