APUSH Review

1. Before the Europeans arrived in the Americas, there were many American Indian

tribes scattered across North and South America. These tribes had complex

societies with unique religious, political, and cultural beliefs.

2. European countries sought to conquer the New World in order to gain wealth and

military status, and to spread the ideas of Christianity. European exploration

often resulted in negative consequences for native populations, such as

widespread epidemics and forced labor systems like the Spanish encomienda

system.

3. Relationships between the Europeans and American Indians were often fraught

with misunderstandings and conflict regarding not only land and resources but

also differing cultural beliefs.

4. The Columbian Exchange resulted in tremendous social, cultural, and political

change for both the Europeans and the American Indians. New food crops and

new sources of mineral wealth brought about extensive demographic, economic,

and social change in Europe. The introduction of new food crops and animals

also impacted the Americas.

5. As native populations dwindled, Europeans turned to Africa as a new source of

forced labor, giving rise to the early plantation system and widespread system of

slavery in the Americas.

Key Topics--Period 1 (1491-1607 C.E.)

Remember that the AP US History exam tests you on the depth of your knowledge, not

just your ability to recall facts. While we have provided brief definitions here, you will

need to know these terms in even more depth for the AP US History exam, including

how terms connect to broader historical themes and understandings.

Native Populations Before European Arrival

● Three Sisters: Three staple crops (corn, beans, and squash) favored by many

native tribes in North America. Their collective name references their

interdependence: the cornstalks provided a structure for the beans to grow up,

and the squash held moisture in the soil for all three.

● Great League of Peace: Also called the Haudenosaunee. A political

confederation of five (later six) Iroquois tribes, which sought to coordinate

collective action. Each tribe maintained its own political system and religious

beliefs. Believed to have formed around 1450.

The Columbian Exchange

● Christopher Columbus: Italian explorer and colonizer. While attempting to

prove a westward sea route for East Asian trade existed, he stumbled across the

Bahamas in October 1492. The first European to visit the islands of Hispaniola

and Cuba.

● Amerigo Vespucci: Italian explorer and cartographer. His 1499–1502 trip

along the South American coast determined that the New World was a distinct

continent from Asia.

● Columbian Exchange: The transmission and interchange of plants, animals,

diseases, cultures, human populations (including slaves), and technologies

between the New World and the Old World. Greatly benefited Europe and Asia

while simultaneously bringing catastrophe to American Indian populations and

cultures.

European Expansion

● Jacques Cartier: French explorer. Cultivated a fur trade with American

Indians. Dubbed the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and its surroundings as “the Country

of Canadas,” a term derived from the St. Lawrence Iroquoian word for

village/settlement.

● Samuel de Champlain: French explorer. Known as the “The Father of New

France.” Founded Quebec in 1608. Made the first accurate maps of what is

modern-day Eastern Canada.

● Treaty of Tordesillas: Signed between Spain and Portugal in 1494, it decided

how Christopher Columbus’s discoveries of the New World would be divided. It

established the zone of Portuguese influence in what would become Brazil.

● Spanish Requirement of 1513: Spain asserted its divine right to conquer the

New World, stating that its main concern was to rescue the natives from

hedonism.

● Vasco Nuñez de Balboa: Spanish explorer and conquistador. In 1513, he led

the first overland expedition by Europeans to reach the Pacific, specifically

crossing the Isthmus of Panama.

● Juan Ponce de León: Spanish explorer and conquistador. Led the first

European expedition to Florida in 1513, an area which he named. Commonly said

to have been hunting for the Fountain of Youth, although that motivation is

considered a myth.

● Ferdinand Magellan: Portuguese explorer. From 1519 to 1522, he led a

Spanish expedition that was the first to circumnavigate the Earth. Magellan died

in battle in the Philippines in 1521, and command was transferred to Juan

Sebastián Elcano.

● Hernán Cortés: A Spanish conquistador whose expedition conquered the Aztec

Empire and brought large swaths of modern-day Mexico under Spanish

authority. Famous for intentionally destroying his own ships in order to force his

men not to abandon their campaign.

● Conquistadores: Generalized term for soldiers and explorers of the Spanish

and Portuguese Empires. Colonized what became Latin America in the sixteenth

through eighteenth centuries.

● Encomienda: A legal system established by the Spanish crown. Conquistadores

or other officials were given a set number of American Indians from whom they

would extract tribute while instructing in the Roman Catholic faith. In practice, it

was a form of slavery. Contrast with: repartimiento.

● Repartimiento: Replaced the encomienda system. American Indians living in

native villages were legally free. This system legally rendered indigenous slavery

nonexistent; natives were allowed land, received pay for labor, and could not be

bought and sold. However, they were still abused by Spanish authorities and

working conditions could still be brutal.

● Juan de Oñate: A conquistador born in New Spain (modern-day Mexico).

Established the first permanent colonial settlement in what is the modern-day

American Southwest. Infamous for the 1599 Acoma Massacre, which saw over

800 American Indians killed. Later recalled to Spain and convicted for cruelty

toward natives and colonists alike.

● Sir Walter Raleigh: English polymath. One of the most important figures of

the Elizabeathan era. Granted permission by Queen Elizabeth I to explore and

colonize the New World in exchange for one-fifth of all the gold and silver this

venture obtained. Founded Roanoke.

● Roanoke: Nicknamed “the Lost Colony.” First attempted English colony in the

New World. Founded in 1585 by Sir Walter Raleigh on an island off the

modern-day North Carolina coast. By 1590, its inhabitants had vanished for

reasons that still remain unknown.

● Virginia Company: The collective name for two joint stock companies (one of

London, the other of Plymouth) that had identical charters but different (if

overlapping) territorial claims. Chartered in 1606 by King James I in order to

settle the North American eastern coastline.

1. Spanish, French, Dutch, and British colonizers had different goals that impacted

the economic, political, and cultural development of their colonies and shaped

colonizers’ interactions with American Indian populations.

2. Conflict arose due to competition for resources among European rivals, and

between the Europeans and American Indians. Examples of American Indian

resistance to colonizers were the Pueblo Revolt, the Pequot War, and King

Philip’s War.

3. Early British colonies developed along the Atlantic coast with some regional

differences. New England colonies were settled by the Puritans, who lived in

small towns. The middle colonies were characterized by the export of cash crops,

less social rigidity, and more religious tolerance. The southern colonies developed

a plantation-based economy.

4. The African slave trade grew extensively throughout the eighteenth century. The

trading of slaves, cash crops, and manufactured goods between Africa, the

Americas, and Europe became known as Triangular Trade.

5. England used its colonies to obtain raw materials for its own manufacturing

purposes and wealth creation. There were, consequently, early examples of

colonial resentment and resistance. From Bacon’s Rebellion in 1676 to the Great

Awakening starting in the 1730s, the colonists begin to carve out a distinct

American identity.

Key Topics--Period 2 (1607-1754 C.E.)

Remember that the AP US History exam tests you on the depth of your knowledge, not

just your ability to recall facts. While we have provided brief definitions here, you will

need to know these terms in even more depth for the AP US History exam, including

how terms connect to broader historical themes and understandings.

European Colonization in the New World

● Samuel de Champlain: French explorer. Known as the “The Father of New

France.” Founded Quebec in 1608. Made the first accurate maps of what is

modern-day Eastern Canada.

● Louis Joliet: French-Canadian explorer. He and Jacques Marquette were the

first Europeans to explore and map the Mississippi River.

● Jacques Marquette: French Jesuit missionary. He and Louis Joliet were the

first Europeans to explore and map the Mississippi River. He founded the first

European settlement in Michigan in 1668.

● Sieur de La Salle: French explorer, also known as René-Robert Cavelier. He

surveyed the Great Lakes, Mississippi River, and Gulf of Mexico. Founded a

network of forts around the Great Lakes and in the modern-day Midwest.

● Dutch East India Company: The vehicle for the commercial ambitions of the

Netherlands in the New World, especially with regards to the fur trade. Led to the

founding of New Netherlands and New Amsterdam. See: Henry Hudson.

● Henry Hudson: English explorer. While working to find a Northwest Passage

for the Dutch East India Company, he sailed up the Hudson River, establishing

Dutch claims for what became New Amsterdam (modern-day New York).

● New Amsterdam: The Dutch capital of their New Netherland colony. Noted for

its tolerance of religious practices. It failed to attract enough settlers to compete

with the surrounding English colonies. Conquered by the English in 1664, who

renamed it New York City.

● Mestizos: A term for people of mixed Spanish and American Indian heritage.

● Catholicism: Adherence to the liturgy and practices of the Roman Catholic

Church. Catholics believe that the Bible alone is not sufficient for salvation, but

that it must be tied to certain rites and traditions. Catholics view the Pope as the

representative of Jesus on Earth. Historically, the Catholic Church was a major

landowner in both Europe and Latin America, and the Pope was often politically

more powerful than most monarchs. Contrast: Protestantism, Puritanism.

● Pueblo Revolt: A 1680 revolt against Spanish settlers in the modern-day

American Southwest. Led by a Pueblo man named Popé, it forced the Spanish to

abandon Santa Fe. A rare, decisive American Indian victory against European

colonization.

● Anglicanism: A form of Protestant Christianity that adheres to the liturgy of the

Anglican Church, also known as the Church of England. Founded in the sixteenth

century by King Henry VIII. See: Puritanism.

● Protestantism: An umbrella term for various Christian sects that broke away

from the Roman Catholic Church following the start of the Reformation in 1517.

Constitutes one of three major branches of Christianity, alongside Catholicism

and the Eastern Orthodox faith. Generally, Protestants believe that faith alone

merits salvation and good works are unnecessary. They reject the authority of the

Pope and believe the Bible is the sole authority. See: Puritanism.

● Charters: A document which Parliament used to grant exclusive rights and

privileges. Required for the legal sanction of a formal colony. Over time,

especially after the Glorious Revolution, most colonies surrendered their charters

and became royal colonies, which involved more centralized control from

England.

● Sir Humphrey Gilbert: English explorer. In the Elizabethan era, he founded

the first English colony at Newfoundland, which failed.

● Sir Walter Raleigh: One of the most important figures of the Elizabethan era.

Granted permission by Queen Elizabeth I to explore and colonize the New World

in exchange for one-fifth of all the gold and silver this venture obtained. Founded

Roanoke.

● Roanoke: Nicknamed “the Lost Colony.” First attempted English colony in the

New World. Founded in 1585 by Sir Walter Raleigh on an island off the

modern-day North Carolina coast. By 1590, its inhabitants had vanished for

reasons that still remain unknown.

Indentured Servitude

● Indentured servants: People who offered up five to seven years of their

freedom in exchange for passage to the New World. Limited rights while

servants, but considered free members of society upon release. During the

seventeenth century, nearly two-thirds of English immigrants were indentured

servants. Declined in favor of slavery, which was more profitable to planters.

● Bacon’s Rebellion: A failed 1676 rebellion in Jamestown. Led by Nathaniel

Bacon, indentured servants and slaves revolted against the Virginia Colony’s

aristocracy. It led to a strengthening of racially coded laws, such as the Virginia

Slave Codes of 1705, in order to divide impoverished white and black slaves, thus

safeguarding the planter aristocracy from future rebellions.

● Sir William Berkeley: Virginia governor during Bacon’s Rebellion (1676).

Ruled the colony based on the interests of the wealthy tobacco planters. In

addition, Berkeley advocated for good relations with the American Indians in

order to safeguard the beaver fur trade.

● Nathaniel Bacon: A young member of the House of Burgesses who capitalized

on his fellow backwoodsmen’s complaints by mobilizing them to form a citizens’

militia. Burned Jamestown during Bacon’s Rebellion. Died of dysentery in 1676.

● House of Burgesses: The first elected legislative assembly in the New World.

Established in 1619. It served as a political model for subsequent English

colonies. Initially, only landowners could vote, and only the Virginia Company

and the governor could rescind laws.

● Jamestown: Founded in Virginia in 1607, it was the first permanent English

settlement in the New World. After the statehouse was burned on four separate

occasions, the capital was moved to what became modern-day Williamsburg. See:

John Smith, Roanoke.

Slavery

● Triangular Trade: A transatlantic trade network. New World colonies exported

raw materials such as sugar and cotton to England. There, these materials were

transformed into rum and textiles. Europeans sold these manufactured goods,

including at African ports, in exchange for slaves, who would then be sold in the

colonies as farm workers, thus completing the triangle.

● Middle Passage: The leg of Triangular Trade which transported Africans across

the Atlantic Ocean to the New World. Approximately 20 percent of enslaved

Africans died before reaching the New World due to poor conditions,

dehydration, and disease.

● Stono Rebellion: A 1739 slave uprising in Stono, South Carolina. Led to the

deaths of more than four dozen colonists and as many as 200 African slaves.

Prompted South Carolina’s proprietors to create a stricter slave code.

English Conflicts with American Indians

● Virginia Company: Chartered in 1606 by King James I in order to settle the

North American eastern coastline. Established a headright system (1618) and the

House of Burgesses (1619). By 1624, a lack of profit forced the company to

concede its charter to the crown, who appointed a royal governor.

● John Smith: A pivotal leader at Jamestown. Negotiated peace between the

settlers and local American Indians. Famously stated “He that will not work shall

not eat,” forcing the Jamestown colonists to work to save their then-failing

colony. Returned to England in 1609 after being injured in a gunpowder

explosion.

● Powhatan: The name for an American Indian tribe neighboring Jamestown.

Also the common name for its chief (formally known as Wahunsenacawh) in the

1610s, who was father to Pocahontas and brother to Opechancanough.

● Pocahontas: American Indian woman who brokered peace between her tribe

and the early settlers at Jamestown, such as John Smith. Married John Rolfe in

1614.

● Opechancanough: Planned and executed a surprise attack in 1622 on

Jamestown that massacred a fourth of the total Virginia colonists in one day. The

resulting retaliation by the English settlers devastated his tribe, altering the

regional balance of power. See: Powhatan.

● Roger Williams: A Protestant theologian in during the 1630s. Believed

American Indians should be treated justly. Advocated the then-radical notion of

separation of church and state, believing government involvement in religion

amounted to forced worship. Banished from Massachusetts in 1636, he and his

followers went on to found Rhode Island.

● Pequot War: A war in New England in 1636–1638. Fought between the Pequot

tribe and the English colonists with their American Indian allies. A catastrophic

defeat for the Pequot tribe. Famous for the Mystic massacre, where over 500

Pequot were slaughtered in a blaze.

● King Philip’s War: Also known as Metacom’s War, King Philip’s War

(1675–1678) was an ongoing battle between English colonists and the American

Indian inhabitants of New England. The English victory expanded their access to

land that was previously inhabited by the natives.

The Development of English Colonial Societies in North America

● Headright system: A policy where a colonial government grants a set amount

of land to any settler who paid for their own—or someone else’s—passage to the

New World.

● John Rolfe: An influential Virginian leader. In 1611, he introduced his fellow

farmers to tobacco cultivation, which provided the economic basis for their

colony’s survival. Married Pocahontas.

● Proprietary colony: A colony in which the crown allotted land and

governmental command to one person. Maryland under Lord Baltimore is an

example of it.

● Lord Baltimore: The noble title for Cecilius Calvert. He founded Maryland in

1632 as a haven for his fellow Catholics, and advocated for peaceful coexistence

between Catholics and Protestants. Overthrown during the Glorious Revolution

by Protestant rebels.

● Puritanism: A religious code and societal organization that split off from

Anglicanism. Puritans believed that their religious and social structures were

ideal. They thought that the Church of England’s ceremonies and teachings were

too reminiscent of Catholicism and that true believers ought to read the Bible for

themselves and listen to the sermons of an educated clergy.

● Pilgrims: The first Puritans to colonize the New World. Settled at Plymouth.

Members of a minority group of Puritans known as separatists.

● Separatists: A minority Puritan faction that wished to abandon the Church of

England and form their own independent church cleansed of any lingering

Catholicism. After a failed 1607–1608 effort in the Netherlands, that failed due to

fears over the local culture corrupting their children, they boarded the Mayflower

and founded Plymouth colony.

● Plymouth: A colony in modern-day Cape Cod, founded by the Pilgrims in 1620.

By 1691, it was merged with the Massachusetts Bay Colony to form the crown

colony of the Province of Massachusetts Bay.

● Mayflower Compact: The first written form of government in the modern-day

United States. Drafted by the Pilgrims, it was an agreement to establish a secular

body that would administer the leadership of the Plymouth colony.

● Squanto: An American Indian who learned English after having been captured

and transported to England. Later returned to the New World. He showed the

Pilgrims how to plant corn and where to fish, enabling them to survive early on.

● Massachusetts Bay Company: Founded in 1629 by a collective of London

financiers, who advocated for the Puritan cause and wanted to profit from

American Indian trade.

● Body of Liberties: Issued by the Massachusetts General Court in 1641, it

delineated the liberties and duties of Massachusetts settlers. It also allowed for

free speech, assembly, and due process; it also authorized the death penalty for

the worship of false gods, blasphemy, and witchcraft.

● Great Migration of the 1630s: A period where many Puritan families moved

across the Atlantic. By 1642, approximately 20,000 Puritans had immigrated to

Massachusetts.

● Anne Hutchinson: A Puritan colonist in Massachusetts. Tried and convicted of

heresy in the 1630s. She asserted that local ministers were erroneous in believing

that good deeds and church attendance saved one’s soul. She believed that faith

alone merited salvation.

● Thomas Hooker: Puritan leader. Founded a settlement at Hartford,

Connecticut (1636) after dissenting from the Massachusetts authorities. See: the

Fundamental Orders of Connecticut.

● Fundamental Orders of Connecticut: The first “constitution” in colonial

America, fully established the Hartford government in 1639. While it modeled

itself after the government of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, the document—in a

key innovation—called for the power of government to be derived from the

governed, who did not need to be church members to vote.

● Charter of Liberties and Privileges: Drafted in 1683 by a New York

assembly, following the colony’s takeover by the English. It mandated elections,

and reinforced traditional English liberties such as trial by jury, security of

property, and religious tolerance for Protestant churches.

● Fundamental Constitution of Carolina: Issued by the proprietors of

Carolina in 1669, who aimed to create a feudal society composed of nobles, serfs,

and slaves. Four-fifths of the land was owned by the planters. Colonial leaders

established an elected assembly and a headright system to attract immigrants,

who were allowed to own the remaining land. It allowed for religious tolerance,

both for Christian dissenters and Jewish people.

● William Penn: Founded Pennsylvania in 1683. A Quaker, Penn believed in

equality between people. He owned all the colony’s land and sold it to settlers at

low costs, instead of developing a headright system. The religious tolerance,

excellent climate, and low cost of land appealed to immigrants from across

Western Europe. See: Quaker

● Quakers: Formally known as the “Society of Friends.” A Protestant church that

advocated that everyone was equal, including women, Africans, and American

Indians. See: William Penn.

● James Oglethorpe: A wealthy reformer who founded Georgia in 1733 as a

haven for those who had been imprisoned in England as debtors. He initially

banned slavery and alcohol from the colony, which led to many disputes among

settlers. In 1751, however, the colony was surrendered to the crown, which

repealed both bans.

Characteristics of English Colonial Societies

● Mercantilism: The theory that a government should control economic pursuits

to further a nation’s national power, especially in the acquisition of silver and

gold. Prominent in Europe from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries.

Replaced by free trade. See: laissez-faire.

● Navigation Acts: Laws passed in 1651 as measure to supersede Dutch control of

international trade. Colonial commodities such as tobacco and sugar had to be

exported to England in English ships and sold in English ports before they could

be re-exported to other nations’ markets. Spurred colonial resentment in the

long-term. See: mercantilism.

● Glorious Revolution: The 1688 overthrow of the Catholic King James II by the

English Parliament. He was replaced by his Protestant daughter Mary II and her

Dutch husband, William III of Orange. Led to both celebration and unrest

throughout the American colonies.

● Toleration Act of 1689: An English law that called for the free worship of most

Protestants, not only Puritans. Forced on Massachusetts in 1691 after it was made

a royal colony, revoking its earlier Puritan-centric charter.

● Great Awakening: A Protestant religious movement that took place across the

Thirteen Colonies during the 1730s and 1740s. It indirectly helped spur religious

tolerance and led to the founding of many universities. See: Second Great

Awakening.

● Jonathan Edwards: A preacher credited for sparking the (First) Great

Awakening. His sermons encouraged parishioners to repent of their sins and

obey God’s word in order to earn mercy. He delivered his most famous sermon,

“Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God,” in 1741.

● George Whitefield: A traveling New Light preacher during the Great

Awakening. Known for his sermons on the “fire and brimstone” eternity that all

sinners would face if they did not publicly confess their sins. Undermined the

power and prestige of Old Light ministers by proclaiming that ordinary people

could understand Christian doctrine without the clergy’s guidance.

1. After the British and the colonists won the French and Indian War, England faced

enormous debt. The resulting taxation of the colonists led to resentment and

tension with England. The Boston Massacre and Boston Tea Party were two

notable examples of this increasingly troubled relationship.

2. Colonial leaders called for resistance to imperial rule and demanded that their

rights be respected. New experiments with democracy and republican forms of

government came about with the Continental Congress, the ideas of Benjamin

Franklin and Thomas Paine, and, ultimately, the Declaration of Independence.

3. After the American Revolution, the Articles of Confederation united the newly

formed states. However, the federal government remained very weak, which was

made evident by Shay’s Rebellion. Debates on how to govern the new country

culminated in the calling of the Constitutional Convention.

4. Throughout the presidencies of George Washington and John Adams, the

Federalists and Anti-Federalists debated on how the young nation should manage

its economy, foreign affairs, and internal relations with the new states. The

Federalists, led by Alexander Hamilton, favored a stronger central government.

The Anti-Federalists, led by Thomas Jefferson, favored giving more power to the

individual states.

5. The development of a distinct American foreign policy emerged. George

Washington warned against becoming entangled in foreign affairs, such as the

French Revolution, and preferred diplomatic initiatives, like Jay’s Treaty and

Pinckney’s Treaty, to deal with continued European presence in America.

6. Migration trends and competition over boundaries, resources, and trade fueled

ethnic tensions and sparked nativist sentiments. The United States’ relationship

with American Indian groups continued to evolve, often centering on conflict

regarding native lands.

Key Topics--Period 3 (1754-1800 C.E.)

Remember that the AP US History exam tests you on the depth of your knowledge, not

just your ability to recall facts. While we have provided brief definitions here, you will

need to know these terms in even more depth for the AP US History exam, including

how terms connect to broader historical themes and understandings.

The French and Indian War

● French and Indian War: 1754–1763. Name for the North American theater of

the Seven Years’ War. Featured Britain and France, and their colonial and native

allies, fighting for control of North America east of the Mississippi. While the

British won, they incurred massive debts in the process. This led to trouble down

the road for them. See: Treaty of Paris (1763).

● George Washington: First President. Served 1789–1797. A land surveyor from

Virginia, he led colonial militia as an officer in the French and Indian War. Led

the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War at battles such as

Valley Forge and Yorktown. Later presided over the Continental Congress.

Among many other acts, he established the informal two-term limit for

presidents by declining to run for reelection in 1796. See: Farewell Address.

● Benjamin Franklin: Founding Father. Invented bifocals, the Franklin stove,

the lightning rod, and the swivel chair. An early campaigner for American unity,

he served as the first U.S. Ambassador to France (1776–1785). Signed both the

Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. Died 1790 at age 84. See:

Albany Plan of Union.

● Albany Plan of Union: A proposal by the Albany Congress, under the guidance

of Benjamin Franklin, during the French and Indian War. It called for a

confederation of colonies to defend against attack by European and native foes.

Rejected by the colonial assemblies due to concern over the central consolidation

of power, and by the British government because they felt it allowed for too much

colonial independence.

● William Pitt: Also known as William Pitt the Elder. A Whig statesman who

shifted British efforts in the French and Indian War from colonial skirmishes to

the capturing of Canada, with key victories in Louisbourg (1758), Quebec (1759),

and Montreal (1760). This effectively removed France’s presence from North

America.

● Treaty of Paris (1763): Treaty which capped off the French and Indian War.

The British took control of French Canada and Spanish Florida, effectively

removing France’s presence from North America.

Post-War Conflicts with American Indians

● Pontiac’s Rebellion: An 18-month conflict with the American Indians of the

Ohio Valley. Led by Chief Pontiac, leader of the Ottawa people, natives attacked

British colonial settlements from the Great Lakes to Virginia. Resulted in the

Proclamation of 1763.

● Proclamation of 1763: In reaction to Pontiac’s Rebellion, King George III

barred American colonists from settling west of the Appalachian Mountains. The

British saw this as a quick and easy way to make peace while securing the fur

trade. Colonists, however, were incensed by the crown’s interference in their

ability to settle land they had won in the French and Indian War. The colonists

often ignored it. An important contributing factor to the American Revolution.

Effects of the French and Indian War

● Currency Act: A law passed by Parliament in 1764. It limited the use of colonial

paper money, in order to protect British merchants from depreciation. While not

a major contributing factor to the American Revolution, it did signify growing

British interest in regulating the colonies.

● Sugar Act: A 1764 law which raised the previous amount demanded on

sweeteners (molasses and sugar). Part of British attempts to pay off debt from the

French and Indian War.

● Quartering Act: A 1765 act of Parliament that required colonial citizens to

provide room and board for British soldiers stationed in America. Wildly

unpopular. This practice was later banned by the Third Amendment to the

Constitution.

● Stamp Act: A pivotal 1765 law. It required that all paper in the colonies, from

death and marriage certificates to newspapers, have a stamp affixed signifying

that the required tax had been paid. See: Stamp Act Congress.

● George Grenville: British Prime Minister who passed the Currency, Sugar,

Quartering, and Stamp Acts. He felt the colonists were being asked to pay only

their fair share of the debt from the French and Indian War.

● Patrick Henry: Founding Father. Young Virginian lawyer and Patriot. In

reaction to the Stamp Act, he accused the British government of usurping the

rights guaranteed to colonists as Englishmen. He encouraged his fellow leaders to

insist that Virginians be taxed only by Virginians, not by some distant royal

authority. Later an Anti-Federalist.

● James Otis: A Patriot from Massachusetts. Coined the phrase “Taxation

without representation is tyranny,” which is popularly abbreviated as “no

taxation without representation.”

● Stamp Act Congress: A meeting of representatives of nine of the Thirteen

Colonies. They sent word to England that only colonial legislatures had the

authority to tax the colonists. Repealed in 1766 and replaced with the Declaratory

Act.

● Sons and Daughters of Liberty: A group of Patriot activists who intimidated

tax collectors by attacking their homes, burning them in effigy, and even tarring

and feathering them. They also ransacked warehouses that held stamps and

burned them to the ground.

● Samuel Adams: Founding Father. Led the Sons and Daughters of Liberty. Also

penned Massachusetts Circular Letter in 1768, which demanded that the

Townshend Act be repealed.

● Declaratory Act: Replaced the Stamp Act. A 1766 law that maintained the right

of the crown to tax the colonies, as Parliament’s authority was identical in both

Britain and North America.

● Townshend Acts: A revenue plan passed by Parliament in 1767. It imposed

harsher taxes on the purveyors of imported goods such as glass, paper, and tea.

In addition, a special board of customs officials was appointed to enforce writs of

assistance. Repealed 1770.

● Writs of assistance: Authorized under the Townshend Acts, writs allowed

customs officials to search colonial homes, businesses, and warehouses for

smuggled goods without a warrant from a judge. Led to the Massachusetts

Circular Letter.

● John Dickinson: Founding Father from Pennsylvania. He wrote a series of

essays called “Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania,” which rekindled interest

in the issue of taxation without representation during the Townshend Acts. He

oversaw the drafting of the Articles of Confederation.

● Massachusetts Circular Letter: Penned by Samuel Adams, it was a response

to the Townshend Acts and the resulting writs of assistance. It demanded the

Townshend Act be immediately repealed. Widely circulated, it rejuvenated

boycotts of British goods.

● Boston Massacre: A landmark incident on March 5, 1770 that helped alienate

the American people from Parliament and King George III. Angered by the

Quartering Act, a crowd of Bostonians harassed the British troops guarding a

local customs house. The guards fired upon the crowd, killing five and wounding

six protesters. John Adams would defend the guards tried for this incident and

secure their acquittal.

● Committees of Correspondence: A means by which Patriots could circulate

letters of protest against British policies. It functioned as a kind of shadow

opposition government in the runup to the American Revolutionary War. Vital in

organizing the Continental Congress.

● Gaspee Affair: The Gaspee was a British warship commissioned to capture

vessels carrying smuggled goods before they reached the colonies. The Gaspee

ran aground on the shores of Rhode Island. The Sons of Liberty set fire to the

boat, and event celebrated throughout coastal colonial towns as a victory for the

tax-burdened consumer.

● Tea Act: A 1773 law that actually lowered the price of tea, but colonists were now

wary of any British attempt to collect revenue. They refused to purchase the tea.

See: Boston Tea Party.

● Boston Tea Party: In protest of the Tea Act, Bostonians dressed as American

Indians boarded British merchant ship and dumped their tea into Boston Harbor.

Resulted in closure of the Harbor, the colonial charter of Massachusetts being

revoked, and the Quartering Act.

● Quebec Act: A 1774 act of Parliament that which allowed the former French

region to expand its borders, taking away potential lands from colonists in the

Ohio River Valley. Even more offensive to the largely Protestant colonists, it also

allowed Quebec citizens to practice Catholicism freely. See: Intolerable Acts.

● Intolerable Acts: A colonial term for a number of punitive laws passed by the

British Parliament in response to the Boston Tea Party. See: Quebec Act, Tea Act,

Thomas Gage.

The American Revolution

● Declaration and Resolves: An attempt by the First Continental Congress to

reconcile the Thirteen Colonies with the British Empire. Addressed to King

George III, it urged him to correct the wrongs incurred by the colonists while

simultaneously acknowledging the authority of Parliament to regulate colonial

trade and commerce.

● First Continental Congress: Organized in 1774 as a response to the

Intolerable Acts, colonial leaders managed to urge their colonies to expand

military reserves and organize boycotts of British goods in the meantime. See:

Declaration and Resolves.

● Thomas Gage: British general. Led the British response to Pontiac’s Rebellion.

Served as military governor of Massachusetts (1774–1775) to enforce the

Intolerable Acts. Led British forces at Lexington and Concord, as well as Bunker

Hill. Replaced in 1775 by William Howe.

● American Revolution: An anti-colonial revolt (1765–1773) where the Thirteen

Colonies threw off the yoke of the British Empire and established the United

States of America. Distinct from but related to the American Revolutionary War

(1775–1783). Its beginning is traced to the aftermath of the French and Indian

War, when Britain sought to resolve the debt that war had created.

● Declaration of the Causes and Necessities of Taking Up Arms: A

document published by the Continental Congress on July 6, 1775. It justified the

raising of a professional colonial military force and urged King George III a

second time to consider colonial grievances.

● King George III: King of Great Britain and Ireland. He reigned from 1760 to

1820. Dismissed attempts by the Second Continental Congress to peacefully

resolve their conflict with Parliament on the grounds that the colonies had no

authority to form such a body.

● Olive Branch Petition: A July 1775 statement by the Continental Congress that

reasserted colonial loyalty to King George III and asked him to intervene with

Parliament on the colonies’ behalf. The king refused to recognize the legitimacy of

the Congress to make any such request.

● Thomas Paine: An English-born political activist in the American and French

Revolutions. Author of Common Sense.

● Common Sense: A pamphlet that used Enlightenment philosophy to argue that

it would be contrary to common sense to allow British injustices to continue.

Written and published in January 1776 by Thomas Paine.

● Enlightenment: An eighteenth-century philosophical and intellectual

movement which prized reason. It challenged traditional notions of reflexive

obedience to the Church and to monarchy, and laid the groundwork for the

scientific revolution and Industrial Revolution. See: Benjamin Franklin, Common

Sense, Declaration of Independence, French Revolution.

● Second Continental Congress: An assembly of delegates from across the

Thirteen colonies (1775–1781). It passed the Declaration of Independence and the

Articles of Confederation.

● Richard Henry Lee: A delegate at the First and Second Continental Congress.

On June 7, 1776, he famously made an official motion calling for the colonies to

declare independence.

● Thomas Jefferson: Founding Father. Authored the Declaration of the

Independence. First Secretary of State (1779–1781). Second Vice President

(1797–1801). Helped found the Democratic-Republican Party in 1794.

Co-authored the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions.

● Declaration of Independence: Announced the colonies’ official break from

England, making the United States a country in its own right. It contained a

preamble that heavily reflected Enlightenment philosophy regarding natural

rights, as well as 27 grievances and charges of wrongdoing directed at the crown

and Parliament. See: Gettysburg Address.

● Patriots: Activists for independence from the British Empire. Mostly young New

Englanders and Virginians. Often did not have significant status in society. Many

volunteered their time to the Continental Army, typically without pay.

● Tories: A British political party which controlled Parliament throughout the

American Revolutionary War. Led by Lord North. Lost a vote of no confidence in

March 1782 following the British defeat at the Siege of Yorktown. Power was

transferred to the Whigs.

● Benedict Arnold: A general in the American Revolutionary War. He

participated in the Capture of Fort Ticonderoga and the Battle of Saratoga. Most

infamously remembered for defection to the British, which caused his name to

become a byword for treason.

● Horatio Gates: American general in the Revolutionary War. He shares credit

with Benedict Arnold for winning the most important battle of the war: the Battle

of Saratoga.

● Battle of Saratoga: An umbrella term for two battles fought 18 days apart in

Autumn 1777. British forces under General Burgoyne attacked U.S. forces led by

Horatio Gates and Benedict Arnold. The British were eventually forced to retreat.

News of the American victory led to the introduction of French aid, reshaping the

entire war.

● Whigs: A British political party which took control of Parliament from the

Tories, and negotiated peace terms with the colonists. Distinct from the later

American political party of the same name.

● Treaty of Paris (1783): Treaty which officially ended the American

Revolutionary War. The U.S. agreed to repay debts to British merchants and

promised not to punish Loyalists who chose to remain in the United States.

Formal recognition of the United States as an independent country. Set the

geographic boundaries between the British Empire and the United States.

American Indians During and After the Revolution

● Miami Confederacy: A collection of American Indian tribes in the eighteenth

century. In the Northwest Indian War (1785–1795), a military alliance led by

Little Turtle and Blue Jacket attempted to resist the expansion of the U.S. into

the Old Northwest territory.

● Little Turtle: War chief of the Miami Confederacy during the Northwest Indian

War. Along with Blue Jacket, he informed Americans that the Confederacy

considered the Ohio River the northwestern boundary of the newfound United

States. At St. Clair’s Defeat, his troops killed over a thousand U.S. officers and

soldiers in the largest American Indian victory in history. See: Battle of Fallen

Timbers.

● Battle of Fallen Timbers: The final battle of the Northwest Indian War,

fought against the Miami Confederacy. Led to the Treaty of Greenville. The forces

under “Mad Anthony” Wayne, recruited after St. Clair’s Defeat, would form the

core of what became the United States Army.

● Treaty of Greenville: A 1795 treaty in which 12 American Indian tribes ceded

vast areas of the Old Northwest to the federal government, including most of

what is now Indiana and Ohio. In return, the tribes of the Miami Confederacy

were given an initial payment of $20,000 and an annual payment of $9,000.

Ended the Northwest Indian War.

The Impact of the Enlightenment

● John Locke: A British philosopher whose theory of natural rights challenged

the absolute and divine rule of kings and queens by asserting that all men should

be ruled by natural laws, and that sovereignty was derived from the will of those

governed. Locke went on to assert that the governed have a responsibility to rebel

against a government that fails to protect the natural rights of life, liberty, and

property. See: Enlightenment.

● John Adams: Second President. Served 1791–1801. First Vice President

(1789–1797). Lobbied for declaring independence at the Continental Congress.

Signed the Alien and Sedition Acts, and built up the armed forces during the

Quasi-War. Died on July 4, 1826, the same day as his friend and political rival

Thomas Jefferson. See: Boston Massacre, midnight judges.

● Separation of powers: An Enlightenment concept advocated by the French

philosopher Montesquieu in his seminal 1748 work The Spirit of the Laws. It is

the idea that a government’s power should be divided into multiple branches that

balance and check each other.

● Direct democracy: A form of democracy in which the people directly vote on

matters of policy, rather than electing delegates to decide for them as in

representative democracy.

The Articles of Confederation

● Articles of Confederation: The first constitution of the U.S., drafted alongside

the Declaration of Independence but by a separate committee. It strongly favored

states’ rights and forbid Congress from levying taxes. Ratified in 1781. Replaced

by the Constitution following Shays’ Rebellion. See: Northwest Ordinance of

1787.

● Supermajority: A majority greater than one half, typically two-thirds.

● Land Ordinance of 1785: Established the basis for the Public Land Survey

System whereby settlers could purchase land in the undeveloped West. It

required new townships to set aside a parcel of land reserved for public

education. At this time, Congress did not have the power to raise revenue via

taxes, so this Ordinance created a local mechanism for funding public education.

See: Department of Education.

● Northwest Ordinance of 1785: A rare triumph under the Articles of

Confederation, it established guidelines for attaining statehood: territories with

at least 60,000 people could apply for statehood. If accepted by Congress, the

new state would have equal status with other states. It banned slavery north of

the Ohio River and east of the Mississippi, thereby guaranteeing future free states

in the Midwest.

● Daniel Shays: Massachusetts farmer and Revolutionary War veteran. He led a

short-lived populist uprising that demanded tax and debt relief. Pardoned in

1788. See: Shays’ Rebellion.

● Shays’ Rebellion: An insurrection in Massachusetts (1786–1787) over

oppressive taxes and debt collectors. Led by Daniel Shays. It helped spur the

Constitutional Convention.

The Constitutional Convention

● James Madison: Founding Father from Virginia. Known as the “Father of the

Constitution” for his role in drafting it and the Bill of Rights. Contributed to the

Federalist Papers. Co-founded the Democratic-Republican Party.

● Alexander Hamilton: Founding Father and co-author of the Federalist Papers.

As the first Secretary of the Treasury, he set out to repair the nation’s credit and

overall financial health. Favored a strong executive, strong military, and political

centralization. See: Whiskey Rebellion.

● Constitutional Convention: A meeting that took place in Philadelphia from

May 25 to September 17, 1787. Ostensibly called to amend the Articles of

Confederation, the majority of the delegates arrived with the intention to simply

draft a new constitution, one which is still in use to the modern-day. See:

Connecticut Compromise, New Jersey Plan, Virginia Plan.

● Robert Morris: Founding Father and noted financier of the American

Revolution. Signed the Declaration, the Articles of Confederation, and the

Constitution. Declined to become the first Treasury Secretary, instead

recommending Alexander Hamilton.

● Charles Pinckney: A South Carolinian notable for his role at the Constitutional

Convention, where he helped introduce the Fugitive Slave Clause and the “no

religious test” clause for public officers. Later negotiated Pinckney’s Treaty with

Spain.

● George Mason: Founding Father from Virginia. One of three delegates at the

Constitutional Convention who refused to sign the final document. He objected to

its lack of a Bill of Rights, and wanted an immediate end to the slave trade (while

supporting slavery itself). His 1776 Virginia Declaration of Rights would strongly

influence the French Revolution’s Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the

Citizen.

● Political parties: Political factions within a republican government. The

Founding Fathers generally warned against such factions. However, parties

quickly arose in Washington’s first term. The U.S. is noted for its enduring

two-party system. There are five recognized party systems, although a Sixth Party

System (starting in the late 1960s) is sometimes also listed.

● Edmund Randolph: Founding Father. A Virginian who would become the first

Attorney General and second Secretary of State. Proposed the Virginia Plan at the

Constitutional Convention.

● Virginia Plan: A plan put forth by Edmund Randolph at the Constitutional

Convention that favored larger states. It called for representation in both

legislative houses to be based solely on population: proportional representation.

See: New Jersey Plan, Connecticut Compromise.

● William Paterson: Founding Father. A New Jersey statesman who put forth

the New Jersey Plan at the Constitutional Convention in rebuttal of the Virginia

Plan.

● New Jersey Plan: A proposal by William Paterson at the Constitutional

Convention. It called for equal representation in the legislative branch, regardless

of the number of citizens of a state, in one legislative body. This structure would

be similar to that under the Articles of Confederation.

● Roger Sherman: Founding Father from Connecticut. Proposed the Connecticut

Compromise, which provided the basis for the structure of the legislative branch.

● Connecticut Compromise: Also known as the Great Compromise of 1787, or

the Sherman Compromise. A proposal at the Constitutional Convention that

membership in one branch of the legislature be based on state population, and

the other branch (the Senate) have equal representation for all states, with each

state having one vote. See: Roger Sherman.

● House of Representatives: The lower chamber of the United States Congress.

Representation is proportional to population. Its size varied over the decades, but

was fixed at the current membership of 435 seats by the Reapportionment Act of

1929. See: Connecticut Compromise.

● Senate: The upper chamber of the United States Congress. Representation is by

state. Each state has two Senators regardless of population. Until 1913, Senators

were appointed by state legislatures. Named for the Roman Senate, upon which it

is based. See: Connecticut Compromise.

● Electoral College: A compromise at the Constitutional Convention regarding

how to elect the president. Electors cast votes as representatives of their states,

which delegates believed would protect the election process from corruption and

the influence of factions (political parties).

● Three-Fifths Compromise: Infamous compromise at the Constitutional

Convention. It held that enslaved person in the South was counted as three-fifths

of a person. In addition, the South conceded to the end of the legal importation of

slaves in 1808.

The Debate over Ratification

● Ratification: The act of giving official certification to a law or treaty. In this

period, it often refers to the process of ratifying the U.S. Constitution. Approval

from at least nine states was required to ratify new constitution, an infringement

on state sovereignty as seen by the Anti-Federalists.

● Federalists: Supported an orderly, efficient central government that could

protect their economic status; these well-organized leaders often wielded

significant political control. Members included George Washington, Benjamin

Franklin, and Alexander Hamilton. An early political party. See: Anti-Federalists,

Alien and Sedition Acts.

● Anti-Federalists: A post-revolutionary political faction that were wary of

centralization and infringements upon individual liberties, especially when it

came to taxation. Their criticism spurred the creation of the Bill of Rights, and

they would go on to contribute to the formation of the Democratic-Republicans.

● John Marshall: Founding Father. The fourth Chief Justice of the Supreme

Court (1801–1835). Cemented the concept of judicial review, making the judicial

branch coequal to the executive and legislative. A Federalist, his rulings

reinforced the supremacy of federal law. See: Marbury v. Madison.

● Bill of Rights: Umbrella term for the first 10 Amendments to the U.S.

Constitution. It explicitly lists protections for individual rights and state

sovereignty. Created to secure the support of Anti-Federalists in ratifying the U.S.

Constitution, which initially had no such guarantees.

● John Jay: Founding Father from New York. President of the Second

Continental Congress. First Chief Justice (1989–1795). An early leader in the

Federalist Party. Contributed to the Federalist Papers. See: Jay’s Treaty.

● Federalist Papers: A collection of letters written in the late 1780s urging

ratification of the Constitution. Authors include Alexander Hamilton, James

Madison, and John Jay.

Washington’s Presidency and the New Republic

● Henry Knox: Secretary of War in Washington’s cabinet. Recruited “Mad

Anthony” Wayne to reorganize U.S. military forces in the Northwest Indian War

after the fiasco of St. Clair’s Defeat.

● Judiciary Act of 1789: Established the structure of the Judiciary Branch, with

the Supreme Court consisting of one presiding chief justice and five associate

justices. It also provided for the establishment of 13 District Courts and three

Circuit Court of Appeals. See: Marbury v. Madison.

● Marbury v. Madison: 1803 ruling that stated Congress cannot pass laws that

are contrary to the Constitution, and that it is the judicial system’s job to

interpret what the Constitution permits. Overturned a clause in the Judiciary Act

of 1789 that granted the Supreme Court the power to command any subordinate

government authority to take or not take an action that is that authority’s legal

duty.

● Tariff Act of 1789: A tariff on imports. Northerners favored a higher rate to

protect their manufacturing industry from foreign encroachment, while Southern

farmers wanted a lower rate to provide for cheaper consumer goods.

● Excise taxes: Taxes paid when purchases are made on a specific good. See:

Whiskey Rebellion.

● Whiskey Rebellion: An early test of the American government’s power under

the new Constitution. Angered by the Federalist government’s excise tax imposed

on distilled liquors such as whiskey, farmers in western Pennsylvania rebelled

over being taxed by a government that seemingly did not represent them. Quickly

defeated, it proved the new central government’s power to stop rebellions and

maintain peace. See: Shays’ Rebellion.

● Bank of the United States: A national bank in which the federal government

held the major financial interest. The national treasury would keep its deposits in

the bank, keeping the funds safe and available as loanable funds. The brainchild

of Alexander Hamilton. Opposed by Thomas Jefferson on Constitutional

grounds.

● Democratic-Republicans: Also called Jeffersonian Republicans. Founded by

Anti-Federalists and agrarian interests, it was a political party that championed

states’ rights and the viewpoint of the common man. A later splinter would

become the modern Democratic Party.

● French Revolution: A period of massive upheaval in 1789–1799 in which the

French overthrew their monarchy and established a republic, which in turn gave

rise to Napoleon. One of the most important events in world history, it led to the

spread of republicanism and Enlightenment ideas. Partly triggered by the debts

incurred by France aiding American revolutionaries.

● Proclamation of Neutrality of 1793: A declaration of neutrality in the

ongoing conflicts between Britain and France resulting from the French

Revolution. Supported by Washington and Hamilton. Decried by Jefferson and

Madison.

● Jay’s Treaty: Negotiated by Chief Justice John Jay in 1794 but shaped by

Hamilton, it realized several American economic goals, including the removal of

British forts in the Northwest Territory. Britain also benefited, as the treaty gave

“most favored nation” trading status to Britain and allowed them to continue

anti-French maritime policies. Both the Democratic-Republicans and the French

were angered by the treaty, which was authorized for 10 years.

● Pinckney’s Treaty: A treaty between the U.S. and Spain, ratified in 1796. It

negotiated a settlement of boundary, right of navigation along the Mississippi

River, and right to deposit goods for transportation at the Port of New Orleans.

The Spanish made these concessions in order to avoid a possibly alliance between

its rival, Britain, and the United States.

● Farewell Address: An open letter penned by George Washington in 1797. It

warned the American people to remain neutral with regard to European affairs,

to avoid entangling alliances, and to refrain from the formation of political

parties. See: French Revolution.

Adams as Second President

● XYZ Affair: A major political scandal. Three agents of French Foreign Minister

Talleyrand—only identified as X, Y, and Z—demanded a large sum of money as a

loan and an additional bribe from an American diplomatic delegation just for the

opportunity to speak with French officials. The delegation refused to comply. Led

to the Quasi-War.

● Alien and Sedition Acts: Laws passed by Congress in 1789. The Alien Acts

increased the residency requirement for citizenship from 5 to 14 years and gave

the president power to detain and/or deport enemy aliens during wartime. The

Sedition Act criminalized the making of false statements that were critical of the

president or of Congress. Both acts were an attempt by the Federalists to silence

the Democratic-Republicans. See: Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions.

● Kentucky Resolution: One of two notable responses to the Alien and Sedition

Acts. Covertly written by Thomas Jefferson, it declared that states could overrule

federal law, as the U.S. Constitution drew its powers only from what the

sovereign states delegated to it. An important precedent for later acts of

nullification. See: Virginia Resolution.

● Virginia Resolution: One of two notable responses to the Alien and Sedition

Acts. Covertly written by James Madison, it declared that states could overrule

federal law, as the U.S. Constitution drew its powers only from what the

sovereign states delegated to it. An important precedent for later acts of

nullification. See: Kentucky Resolution.

1. The United States continued to develop its own democratic ideals, sparking

debates about role of federal government, and leading to the formation of various

political parties.

2. The U.S. Supreme Court established the principle that federal laws take

precedence over state laws. Through Marbury v. Madison (1803), the Court also

established the principle of judicial review, which allowed courts to check the

power of the legislature and executive branches of government, further

solidifying a “separation of powers.”

3. America developed a national culture, especially after the War of 1812, and

various religious and social reform groups emerged. The temperance movement

sought to ban alcohol. The abolition movement worked to end slavery and to

assist African Americans. The women’s rights movement’s efforts culminated in

the Seneca Falls Convention.

4. America underwent an economic and technological revolution. Major

developments included the cotton gin, the steam engine, the factory system, and

the expansion of railroads and canals. America moved away from a small

subsistence-based economy and into an era of increasing industrialization, which

impacted societal and family structures.

5. Expanding westward after the Louisiana Purchase, the United States sought to

expand its borders and to be seen as a major player in foreign trade. The Monroe

Doctrine and military actions against American Indian tribes demonstrated the

desire for more control in North America.

6. As new states joined the United States, the debate over slavery raged on. In an

attempt to appease both the North and South, Henry Clay crafted the Missouri

Compromise, resolving some tension for the next three decades.

Key Topics--Period 4 (1800-1848 C.E.)

Remember that the AP US History exam tests you on the depth of your knowledge, not

just your ability to recall facts. While we have provided brief definitions here, you will

need to know these terms in even more depth for the AP US History exam, including

how terms connect to broader historical themes and understandings.

The Election of Thomas Jefferson

● Federalists: Supported an orderly, efficient central government that could

protect their economic status; these well-organized leaders often wielded

significant political control. Members included George Washington, Benjamin

Franklin, and Alexander Hamilton. An early political party. See: Anti-Federalists,

Alien and Sedition Acts.

● Thomas Jefferson: Third President. Served 1801–1809. Authored the

Declaration of the Independence. He led the U.S. through the Tripolitanian War

and avoided involvement in the Napoleonic Wars. In some cases, Jefferson

adhered to the letter of the Constitution, while at other times (such as with the

Louisiana Purchase) he adopted a loose interpretation. For example, he kept

many of the hallmarks of the Federalist Era intact (such as Hamilton’s economic

system), but he had the citizenship requirement of the Alien Act reduced to five

years and abolished the excise tax.

● Electoral College: A name for the group of electors that decides who the

president and vice-president will be. Whichever candidate receives the majority

of electoral votes wins. If no candidate receives a majority, the presidential

election is thrown to the House. The Senate elects the vice president. It is possible

to win the electoral college but lose the popular vote; this scenario has happened

on five occasions: 1824, 1876, 1888, 2000, and 2016. The Electoral College was

modified by the Twelfth Amendment.

● Democratic-Republicans: One of the first political parties in the United

States. They opposed the Federalist Party. They supported states’ rights and

favored agrarianism. Members included Thomas Jefferson, James Monroe, and

Aaron Burr. Following the party’s fragmentation during the Era of Good Feelings,

a faction led by Andrew Jackson became dominant. That faction formed the

Democratic Party, which still exists. See: Anti-Federalist.

● Aaron Burr: Third Vice President (1801–1805). Served during Thomas

Jefferson’s first term. Famously killed Alexander Hamilton in an 1804 duel. Tried

but acquitted on charges of treason in 1807 over allegations he conspired with

foreign agents to overthrow Spanish rule in what became the American

Southwest, in order to establish a new nation with himself as ruler.

● Alexander Hamilton: Founding Father and co-author of the Federalist Papers.

Split the Federalist ticket in the Election of 1800, weakening then-President John

Adams enough to allow Thomas Jefferson to win. In an 1804 duel, he was shot

and killed by Vice President Aaron Burr.

● Louisiana Territory: In 1803, Jefferson offered France $10 million for New

Orleans and a strip of land that extended to Florida. However, Napoleon had

abandoned his dream of an American empire because of his failure to stop a slave

uprising in Haiti; he instead prioritized raising revenue to fund his conquest of

Europe. He offered the entire Louisiana Territory, which stretched from the Gulf

of Mexico to the Hudson Bay, and from the Mississippi River to the Rocky

Mountains, for the bargain price of $15 million. Jefferson, while torn over the fact

that the Constitution did not specifically provide for the president to negotiate for

and purchase land from a foreign power, reluctantly accepted the proposal in

order to safeguard national security.

● Pinckney’s Treaty: The United States had enjoyed the right of deposit at the

Port of New Orleans under this 1795 treaty with Spain, but in 1798 the Spanish

revoked the treaty.

● Napoleon Bonaparte: A famous French military and political leader, both

during the French Revolution and the ensuing Napoleonic Wars. He led France

as Emperor Napoleon I from 1804 until 1814. His various military conquests led

to the spread of legal reform, republicanism, nationalism, and other ideas of the

French Revolution. In American history, he is notable for his involvement in the

Louisiana Purchase, as he sold the Louisiana Territory to the United States.

● James Monroe: Fifth President. Served 1817–1825. A Virginian and

Democratic-Republican, he helped secure the Louisiana Purchase. During the

War of 1812, he served as both Secretary of State (1811–1817) and Secretary of

War (1814–1815). The Era of Good Feelings largely overlaps with his presidency.

He dealt with the Panic of 1819 and well as the Missouri Compromise. In 1823, he

issued the Monroe Doctrine, a long-lasting foreign policy of the United States.

● Robert Livingston: Along with James Monroe, he was dispatched to France in

1803 to offer $10 million for New Orleans and a strip of land that extended to

Florida. If the negotiations failed, Monroe and Livingston were to travel directly

to London to ask for a transatlantic alliance between the United States and

Britain. Much to the surprise of both men, the French ministers were offering not

only the land Jefferson sought but the entire Louisiana Territory.

● Meriwether Lewis: One half of the famed Lewis and Clark team who explored

and charted the Louisiana Purchase. See: William Clark.

● William Clark: One half of the famed Lewis and Clark team who explored and

charted the Louisiana Purchase. See: Meriwether Lewis.

The Marshall Court

● Judiciary Act of 1801: In a last-minute piece of legislation before the Congress

was to be turned over to the majority Democratic-Republicans, the Federalists

created 16 new judgeships. President John Adams worked through the nights of

his last days in office, appointing so-called “midnight judges” who would serve on

the bench during Jefferson’s administration. Incensed by the packing of

Federalists into lifetime judicial appointments, Jefferson sought to keep these

men from taking the bench. This led to the Marbury v. Madison ruling.

● Midnight judges: Judges appointed at the very end of the Adams

administration under the Judiciary Act of 1801. So-called because they were an

attempt to pack the judicial branch with Federalist judges just before the

Democratic-Republicans took power.

● James Madison: Fourth President. Served 1809–1817. A Virginian and

Democratic-Republican, he served as Jefferson’s Secretary of State (1801–1809)

and help negotiate the Louisiana Purchase. He led the U.S. through the War of

1812. Due to the war’s difficulties, he shifted toward supporting a stronger

centralized state, a re-chartered national bank, and various internal

improvements. See: American System, Second Bank of the United States.

● William Marbury: One of the “midnight judges” appointed by John Adams.

Jefferson tried to stop his appointment. So, Marburg sued under the Judiciary

Act of 1789, which granted the Supreme Court the authority to enforce judicial

commissions. His case resulted in the landmark Marbury v. Madison decision.

● Judiciary Act of 1789: Established the structure of the Judiciary Branch, with

the Supreme Court consisting of one presiding chief justice and five associate

justices. It also provided for the establishment of 13 district courts and three

circuit courts of appeal. See: Marbury v. Madison.

● Supreme Court: The highest court in the judicial branch. In the present day,

there are nine justices seated at it, with one of the nine serving as Chief Justice,

although this number fluctuated in the early years of the United States. The

president nominates a justice and the Senate votes on that nomination. If

confirmed, the justice has a lifetime appointment, serving until their death or

retirement. See: Judiciary Act of 1789, Marbury v. Madison

● John Marshall: Founding Father. The fourth Chief Justice of the Supreme

Court (1801–1835). Cemented the concept of judicial review, making the judicial

branch coequal to the executive and legislative. A Federalist, his rulings

reinforced the supremacy of federal law. See: Marbury v. Madison.

● Chief Justice: The highest judicial officer in the United States. When in the

majority of a ruling, the Chief Justice assigns the duty of who will write the

majority’s opinion. The Chief Justice also has sway over which cases the Supreme

Court will hear. By tradition, the Chief Justice administers the presidential oath

of office. See: Earl Warren, John Jay, John Marshall, Roger Taney, William

Howard Taft.

● Writ of mandamus: A court order to an inferior government official

compelling them to carry out their legally obligated duties. Important in the

reasoning of the Marbury v. Madison decision.

● Marbury v. Madison: 1803 ruling stated Congress cannot pass laws that are

contrary to the Constitution, and that it is the judicial system’s job to interpret

what the Constitution permits. Overturned a clause in the Judiciary Act of 1789

that granted the Supreme Court the power to command any subordinate

government authority to take or not take an action that is that authority’s legal

duty. See: judicial review, separation of powers, William Marbury.

● Impeachment: The process of a legislative body removing a government official

from their appointed office. Impeachment is often mistaken for being

successfully removed. In fact, it is merely the name for the overall process. Both

Andrew Johnson and Bill Clinton were impeached but neither man was convicted

of the charges laid against them. See: Samuel Chase.

● Samuel Chase: A Supreme Court justice. Served 1796–1811. The House

impeached Chase owing to his highly Federalist partisan decisions. The Senate,

however, refused to remove him because of the absence of any evidence of “high

crimes and misdemeanors.” Thus, Jefferson’s attempt to push Federalist judges

out of the system was unsuccessful, as most remained on the bench for life. The

judges did tend to rule more to the president’s liking, however, once the threat of

impeachment hung heavily over the judicial system. Nevertheless, this episode

proved to be the last time that a Supreme Court justice would be impeached,

maintaining the precious separation of powers between the legislative and

judicial branches. See: midnight judges.

● Partisan: The supporter of a political figure or cause, to the point that it biases

their actions. See: Samuel Chase.

Jefferson’s Challenges

● Twelfth Amendment: Ratified in 1804, it called for electors to the Electoral

College to specify which ballot was being cast for the office of president and

which was being cast for the office of vice president. In other words, the president

and vice president were now elected as a unified ticket, rather than the vice

president being the runner-up. The tie vote that occurred in 1800 between

Jefferson and Burr would not happen again under this new amendment.

● Essex Junto: A group of radical Federalists plotting for a New England state

secession from the Union. They had originally asked Hamilton if he would run for

governor of New York to join in their exploits. Hamilton refused the offer, so the

group then asked Aaron Burr if he would run. Burr gladly accepted. Upon hearing

the news, Hamilton leaped at the chance to crush Burr’s chances of election by

leading the opposition faction. Wary of Burr for his association with the

Democratic-Republicans, Federalists in New York chose not to elect Aaron Burr

as governor. The plot then faded away, but the whole incident contributed to the

fatal Hamilton-Burr duel.

● John Randolph: Also known as John Randolph of Roanoke, he was Virginia

planter once counted among Jefferson’s supporters in the House. Randolph

opposed President Jefferson’s abandonment of his once staunch advocacy for

states’ rights, believing the man had essentially become a Federalist. In reaction,

Randolph founded the Quids.

● Quids: More formally known as the tertium quids (Latin for “a third

something”). They were a conservative wing of the Democratic-Republican party

that wished to restrict the role of the federal government. The Quids were

founded in 1805 by John Randolph. See: Yazoo land scandal.

● Yazoo land scandal: A real estate fraud case in Georgia during the mid-1790s.

The Quids stated that President Jefferson’s decision to pay companies restitution

for illegally obtained land in Georgia (the Yazoo land scandal) proved that he was

corrupt. This scandal led to a schism within the Democratic-Republican party

that continued to plague Jefferson in his second term.

● Tripolitan War: A conflict fought (1801–1805) between the U.S. Navy and

Mediterranean pirates based on the North African coast, with assistance by

Sweden. Also known as the First Barbary War. The war was instigated by Barbary

pirates attacking U.S. merchant vessels. The pirates held the crews for ransom

and demanded tribute.

● Napoleonic Wars: The umbrella term for seven major European conflicts

between 1803 and 1815, which spun out of the French Revolution and its various

wars. The French Empire under Napoleon Bonaparte fought varying alliances of

European powers that aimed to roll back the nationalism and liberalism

unleashed by the French Revolution. The War of 1812 was a secondary theater in

North America to these wars. In the end, following a failed invasion of Russia,

Napoleon was defeated. The resulting Congress of Vienna redrew Europe’s

borders, established a conservative anti-nationalistic, pro-monarchy consensus

for several decades, and established the supremacy of the British Empire and the

Pax Britannica until World War I.

● USS Chesapeake: In 1807, the British ship Leopard fired upon the USS

Chesapeake, right off the coast of Virginia. The attack killed three Americans, and

the British then impressed four sailors from Chesapeake. Despite the war fever

taking hold in America, President Jefferson sought a diplomatic resolution via

economic sanctions. This led to the Embargo Act of 1807.

● Embargo Act of 1807: Passed in response to British and French harassment of

American shipping. However, this embargo mainly hurt the U.S. as neither

nation was dependent on U.S. trade. Repealed in 1809 and replaced with the

Non-Intercourse Act of 1809. The Embargo Act led to the Hartford Convention

and the weakening of the U.S. ahead of the War of 1812.

● Non-Intercourse Act of 1809: Replaced the unpopular Embargo Act of 1807.

This law allowed the United States to trade with foreign nations except Britain

and France. Like its predecessor, the Embargo Act, it was difficult to enforce and

mostly ineffective.

Madison and European Issues

● War hawks: ‘Hawk’ is nickname for pro-war activists. Pro-peace activist are

often termed doves. In the specific context of the early nineteenth century, it

refers to politicians like Henry Clay from Kentucky and John C. Calhoun from

South Carolina who insisted that the War of 1812 would finally clear Britain’s

influence from North America.

● Henry Clay: A statesman and orator from Kentucky, Clay was known as “The

Great Compromiser” for brokering multiple deals over nullification and slavery.

He was also a proponent of infrastructure development that he called the

American System. Clay notably ran for president on several occasions but never

won. See: Compromise of 1850, Great Triumvirate.

● John C. Calhoun: A South Carolina politician and member of the Great

Triumvirate. Calhoun was an ardent supporter of states’ rights, nullification, and

slavery. Calhoun, who had served as Andrew Jackson’s vice president, resigned

from that office to return to the Senate, where he felt he could better defend the

virtues of nullification. From his deathbed, Calhoun wrote fierce attacks upon the

proposed Compromise of 1850 and affirmed the right of secession.

● Battle of Tippecanoe: A battle that took place in the Indiana Territory on

November 7, 1811. American forces under the command of Governor William

Henry Harrison battled Tecumseh’s Confederacy, an American Indian force of

various tribes led by the Shawnee leader Tecumseh and his brother “The

Prophet.” Harrison’s victory propelled him into the White House (briefly).

● William Henry Harrison: Ninth President. Served from March 4 to April 4,

1841, famously dying after 31 days in office. A hero of the War of 1812, specifically

the Battle of Tippecanoe, his lively campaign saw the Whigs cart model log cabins

to towns and distribute hard cider to boast of Harrison’s “poor” background. His

“Tippecanoe and Tyler, too” ticket easily defeated Van Buren in 1840. However,

he gave his Inaugural Address on a cold, rainy day and neglected to wear a warm

coat. He contracted pneumonia and died. See: John Tyler.

● Tecumseh and the Prophet: A pair of Shawnee brothers, Tecumseh and the

Prophet, who led a large native confederacy organized in the face of an American

advance westward. The Prophet, born Tenskwatawa, was a traditionalist who

wished to purge American Indian culture of any European influence.

Then-Governor William Henry Harrison and his men successfully repulsed a

surprise attack by them and subsequently burned a tribal settlement at

Tippecanoe. This military disaster left the brothers with a poor reputation among

American Indians.

● War of 1812: Often called “The Second War of Independence.” Fought

1812–1815. It is the U.S. term for the North American theater of the Napoleonic

Wars. Tensions between the United States and Britain had been high since the

attack on the USS Chesapeake. Following unsuccessful economic sanctions under

the Jefferson administration, the Monroe administration was pressured into

declaring war by Congressional War Hawks. The war went poorly, and nearly led

to New England’s secession at the Hartford Convention. British forces burned the

White House in August 1814. However, the United States managed not to lose

territory before the Treaty of Ghent was signed, and the Battle of New Orleans

reinvigorated U.S. morale.

● Fort McHenry: A base in Baltimore, Maryland. It was involved in the Battle of

Baltimore during the War of 1812. U.S. soldiers valiantly held Fort McHenry

through a night of bombing by the British Royal Navy in Chesapeake Bay,

inspiring Francis Scott Key, who was being held prisoner on a nearby British

ship, to write “The Star-Spangled Banner.”

● Francis Scott Key: Creator of “The Star-Spangled Banner.” See: Fort McHenry.

● The Star-Spangled Banner: The U.S. national anthem. Written by Francis

Scott Key after witnessing the bombardment of Fort McHenry during the War of

1812. It was made the official national anthem in 1931 during the twilight of the

Hoover administration, but had gained some official recognition as a national

anthem by the Wilson administration in 1916.

● Andrew Jackson: Seventh President. Served 1829–1837. He gained fame for

his defense of New Orleans during the War of 1812, a rare outright U.S. victory in

that conflict. Jackson advocated for the “common man” against established

interests, and supported universal male suffrage for whites, nixing the existing

property requirement that barred the poor from participating in democracy. He

also pushed for a spoils system to reward supporters, opposed abolitionism, and

killed the Second Bank of the United States. He forcefully quashed South

Carolina during the Nullification Crisis. Jackson is infamous for creating the Trail

of Tears. See: Tariff of 1832.

● Battle of New Orleans: A battle fought between U.S. forces led by Andrew

Jackson and British forces. It occurred from January 6–18, 1815. Jackson,

desperate to secure the economically vital port of New Orleans, which controlled

the flow of traffic along the Mississippi, recruited local free African Americans

and even a band of pirates to supplement his militia. The battle was a stunning

lopsided American victory. Due to the slow speed at which news traveled during

this period, the battle actually occurred after the War of 1812 had officially ended.

● Treaty of Ghent: It ended the War of 1812, and was signed by American envoys

and British diplomats in Belgium on December 24, 1814. The provisions of the

treaty provided for the return of any conquered territories to their rightful

owners, and the settlement of a boundary between Canada and the United States.

Essentially, the war ended in a draw—neither side gained any major concessions,

restitution, or apologies. Most Americans were pleased, however, because they

had expected to lose territory. See: Battle of New Orleans, Hartford Convention.

Ideological Divides in the United States

● Hartford Convention: During the winter of 1814–1815, a radical group of New

England Federalists met at Hartford, Connecticut to discuss ways to demand that

the federal government pay them for the loss of trade due to the Embargo Act and

the War of 1812. The group also proposed amending the Constitution to: limit the

U.S. President to one term; require a two-thirds vote to enact an embargo,

declare war, and admit new states; and repeal the Three-Fifths Compromise.

Some even suggested secession. However, news of the war’s end and Jackson’s

victory at New Orleans swept the nation, resulting in the Federalists being labeled

unpatriotic and leading to their party’s demise.

● James Tallmadge: New York senator. He proposed an amendment to

Missouri’s bid for statehood. After the admission of Missouri as a state, the

Tallmadge Amendment would not have allowed any more slaves to be brought

into the state and would have provided for the emancipation of the children of

Missouri slaves at the age of 25 years. Southerners were outraged by this

abolition attempt and crushed the amendment in the Senate. This led to the

Missouri Compromise.

● Emancipation: The freeing of slaves. See: James Tallmadge.

● Missouri Compromise: Proposed by Henry Clay of Kentucky, it constituted

three bills which collectively allowed for the admission of Missouri as a slave state

while also admitting Maine as a free state. This would maintain the balance of

power in the Senate. In addition, slavery would not be permitted in states

admitted above the latitude 36 ̊30’ (with the exception of Missouri, which lay

above the line). Clay’s compromise was accepted by both North and South and

lasted for 34 years, earning him the title “the Great Compromiser.” Functionally

repealed by Kansas-Nebraska Act, but not officially overturned until the Dred

Scott v. Sandford ruling declared it was unconstitutional.

Monroe and the Era of Good Feelings

● Era of Good Feelings: A period of national unity, it began with the close of the

War of 1812 and ended in the 1820s. It saw the collapse of the Federalist Party

and a decline in partisanship. It was followed by a revival of partisan bickering

between the Jacksonian Democrats and the Whigs.

● John Quincy Adams: Sixth President. Served from 1825–1829. Son of John

Adams. In his lifetime, JQA was a member of basically every major political party

at some point. He was elected after striking a deal with Henry Clay in the

disputed 1824 election. Following his presidency, JQA was elected to the House

in 1830, and served until his death in 1848. He became increasingly opposed to

slavery, even arguing before the Supreme Court in 1841 on behalf of African

slaves in the Amistad case, winning them their freedom. He criticized the

Mexican-American War.

● Monroe Doctrine: Proposed by President Monroe in his annual address to

Congress in 1823, it quickly became the basis of U.S. foreign policy in Latin

America. The doctrine called for “nonintervention” in Latin America and an end

to European colonization. Though the U.S. did not actually have an strong

enough military to defend the doctrine if necessary, it remained firm and adhered

to the Doctrine throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. See:

Roosevelt Corollary.

● Tariff of 1816: Because of a postwar upsurge in nationalism after the War of

1812, there was a strong desire to protect all things American, especially the

burgeoning industrial economy. To prevent cheap British goods from flooding the

market and injuring American manufacturing, Congress passed the Tariff of 1816,

which imposed a 20 percent duty on all imported goods and became the first

truly “protective tariff ” in American history. However, the passage of the tariff

was unpopular in the South due to its export-oriented agricultural economy. The

tariff was allowed to lapse in 1820. See: Panic of 1819.

● Daniel Webster: U.S. senator from Massachusetts (1827–1841, 1845–1850)

and Secretary of State under Harrison and Tyler (1841–1843) and Fillmore

(1850–1852). A Whig politician and member of the Great Triumvirate. During

the debate over the Tariff of 1816, he complained that New England had not

developed enough to withstand interruptions in its ability to trade freely with

Britain. He opposed nullification. He often sought the presidency but never won.

He resigned his Senate seat over the negative reception to his support for the

Compromise of 1850.

● American System: Proposed by Henry Clay of Kentucky, it sought to establish

manufacturing and bring in much needed revenue for internal improvements

throughout the country. It included the recharter of the Bank of the United

States; protective tariffs, such as the one passed in 1816; and improvements on

American infrastructure, such as turnpikes, roads, and canals. The South did not

support the plan, as plantations (especially cotton ones) made their money on

export. Internal improvements also required a stronger federal government,

which potentially threatened the South’s control over their slave population.

● Second Bank of the United States: A national bank, patterned on Alexander

Hamilton’s design for the original. It existed from 1818–1824. The BUS was

chartered by James Madison in 1816, as he felt the need to strengthen the central

government after the problems encountered during the War of 1812. However,

the bank contributed to the Panic of 1819, infuriating many and leading to

Andrew Jackson’s successful effort to kill it. However, this act by Jackson would

contribute to long-running instability in the American economy until the creation

of the Federal Reserve System after the Panic of 1907.

The Rise of the Two-Party System

● Rise of the Common Man: An aspect of what became the Jacksonian

Democrats. By 1820, many states had adopted universal male suffrage for whites,

eliminating the property-owning requirement to be able to vote. This era signaled

a retreat from exclusive rule by the well-to-do and a shift to a more democratic

society.

● Democrats: During the Era of Good Feelings, the Democratic-Republicans

fragmented. During the 1828 election, the Democrats supported Andrew Jackson

and the National Republican faction supported Henry Clay. Jackson’s faction

founded the modern Democratic Party. In this period, prior to the Civil War, the

(Jacksonian) Democrats favored an agrarian economy, ending the national bank,

lowering tariffs, and increasing the political power of the “common man,” such as

through universal male suffrage for whites. They also supported states’ rights and

federal restraint in social affairs.

● National Republicans: A faction of the splintering Democratic-Republicans

during the 1828 election. They supported Henry Clay and opposed Andrew

Jackson. The National Republicans eventually became the Whig Party in 1836.

Whig ideology was very similar to the platform of the old Federalist Party. See:

Democrats.

● Whig Party: The Whig Party was born out of opposition to Jacksonian

Democrats. The Whigs favored economic nationalism, a strong central

government, and rechartering the national bank. They believed in protectionist

measures such as tariffs to support American industrialization. They also

promoted Clay’s American System as a way to improve the roads, canals, and

infrastructure of the country. The party collapsed over the question of slavery’s

expansion into newly acquired territories.

● Two-party system: The United States is noted for its enduring two-party

system; the life cycle of which two parties are dominant is referred to as a Party

System. There are five recognized party systems, although a Sixth Party System

(starting in the late 1960s) is sometimes also listed.

● McCulloch v. Maryland: An 1819 case that challenged the doctrine of

federalism. It involved the state of Maryland attempting to collect a tax from the

Second Bank of the United States. Marshall invoked the “necessary and proper”

clause of the Constitution to rule that the federal government had an implied

power to establish the bank. He also declared that the state had no right to tax a

federal institution; he argued that “the power to tax was the power to destroy”

and would signal the end of federalism. Most importantly, the ruling established

that federal laws were the supreme law of the land, superseding state laws.

● Specie Circular: A requirement instituted by the Jackson administration. The

payment for the purchase of all federal lands had to be made in hard coin, or

specie, rather than banknotes. Contributed to the Panic of 1837.

● Panic of 1837: A financial crisis that lasted from 1837 until the mid 1840s.

Caused, in part, by Andrew Jackson killing the Bank of the United States and

issuing the Specie Circular, the latter of which caused the value of paper money to

plummet.

● Tariff of 1828: This tariff came about in response to New England merchants

who had been pushing for stronger protection from foreign competitors.

However, the new tariff was incredibly damaging to the southern economy,

causing Vice President John C. Calhoun to secretly write “The Southern Carolina

Exposition and Protest,” which threatened South Carolina’s secession. Calling the

tariff the “Tariff of Abominations,” Calhoun recommended that the southern

states declare it to be null and void (nuff liciation) if the federal government

refused to lower the duty requirement. In an attempt to appease the South,

Jackson signed into law the Tariff of 1832.

● Tariff of 1832: It lowered the Tariff of 1828’s rate from 45 percent to 35 percent

in a failed attempt to placate the South. Calhoun resigned from the vice

presidency in response. South Carolina voted to nullify the Tariff of 1832 and

threatened to secede if Jackson attempted to collect the duties by force. In

response, Jackson encouraged Congress to lower tariffs even more. However, he

also asked Congress to pass the Force Bill, which gave the president the power to

use the military to collect tariffs. This signaled to the South that their threats

would not be tolerated. In response, South Carolina rescinded the nullification.

However, the tensions between the North and the South would continue to

escalate, culminating in the Civil War.

● Spoils system: A form of political corruption where a political parties rewards

its supporters with favors, often posts to public office. Andrew Jackson was a

proponent of the spoils system, in which he appointed those who supported his

campaign to government positions. Jackson created jobs and appointed many

friends to his unofficial cabinet, earning it the name “Kitchen Cabinet” from

critics. See: political machines, Pendleton Civil Service Act.

● Indian Removal Act: This law provided for the immediate forced resettlement

of American Indians living in Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, and

present-day Illinois. By 1835, some 100,000 Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw,

Creek, and Seminole American Indians had been forcibly removed from their

homelands. See: Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, Trail of Tears, Worcester v.

Georgia.

● Cherokee Nation v. Georgia: A Supreme Court case from 1831. The Marshall

court ruled that the Cherokee Tribe was not a sovereign foreign nation and,

therefore, had no right to sue for jurisdiction over its homelands. See: Worcester

v. Georgia.

● Worcester v. Georgia: A Supreme Court case (1832) which ruled that the

state of Georgia could not infringe on the Cherokee Nation’s sovereignty, thus

nullifying Georgia state laws within the tribe’s territory. President Jackson,

incensed, allegedly said, “John Marshall has made his decision; now let him

enforce it.” The expulsion of the Cherokee resulted in the Trail of Tears. Also

notable as being one of the few times a president ignored a Supreme Court ruling.

Religious Revival and Reform Movements

● Second Great Awakening: A Protestant religious movement that took place

across the United States between the 1790s and the 1840s. It peaked in the 1820s.

Unlike the (First) Great Awakening, it gradually came to place a greater emphasis

on slavery as a sin. See: abolitionism, American Temperance Society, Baptist,

Charles G. Finney, Methodist.

● Charles G. Finney: A Presbyterian minister during the Second Great

Awakening. Like Jonathan Edwards of the First Great Awakening, Finney

appealed to his audience’s emotions, rather than to their reason. His “fire and

brimstone” sermons became commonplace in upstate New York. Finney insisted

that parishioners could save themselves through good works and a steadfast faith

in God. He also was an abolitionist, and condemned slavery from the pulpit.

● Methodists: Methodism is a form of Protestant Christianity based on the

teachings of John Wesley. It split off from the Anglican Church. They accept

infant baptism and stress charitable work, especially that which alleviates the

suffering of the poor. During the Second Great Awakening, Methodist and Baptist

ministers often preached at tent revivals, converting thousands. This led to these

two forms of Protestantism becoming the two largest denominations of

Christianity in the U.S. during this period.

● Baptists: An evangelical sect of Protestant Christianity. Generally, they believe

that baptism should only be performed on adults who can profess their faith (as

opposed to infant baptism). Baptists also believe in salvation through faith alone,

not requiring good works, and in the supremacy of the Bible as the sole authority

over theological matters. During the Second Great Awakening, Methodist and

Baptist ministers often preached at tent revivals, converting thousands. This led

to these two forms of Protestantism becoming the two largest denominations of

Christianity in the U.S. during this period.

● American Temperance Society: Revival preachers of the Second Great

Awakening joined forces in the 1820s to form the American Temperance Society.

While their initial goal was to encourage drinkers simply to limit their alcohol

intake, the movement soon evolved to demand absolute abstinence, as reformers

began to see the negative effects that any alcohol consumption had on people’s

lives. The movement quickly earned the support of state leaders as decreased

alcohol use resulted in fewer on-the-job accidents and more overall productivity.

The most active members of temperance societies tended to be middle-class

women.

● Dorothea DIx: Revival preachers of the Second Great Awakening joined forces

in the 1820s to form the American Temperance Society. While their initial goal

was to encourage drinkers simply to limit their alcohol intake, the movement

soon evolved to demand absolute abstinence, as reformers began to see the

negative effects that any alcohol consumption had on people’s lives. The

movement quickly earned the support of state leaders as decreased alcohol use

resulted in fewer on-the-job accidents and more overall productivity. The most

active members of temperance societies tended to be middle-class women.

● Sylvester Graham: A nineteenth-century Presbyterian minister, Reverend

Graham is best known for advocating vegetarianism and supporting the

temperance movement. Graham crackers were not invented by him, but they are

named in his honor.

● John Harvey Kellogg: Inventor of the corn flake, he espoused the importance

of healthy diets. Dr. Kellogg established the Battle Creek Mental Institution to put

his ideas about diet and health into practice.

● Cult of domesticity: The Industrial Revolution had social consequences.

People no longer necessarily labored in the field or in small home industries. As

children became less important as a source of labor, and men took factory jobs,

the position of women became centered on the home. This led to the elevation of

motherhood and homemaking in the “cult of domesticity” in the early nineteenth

century.

● Abolitionists: Advocates for ending slavery. Aside from the influence of

Enlightenment ideas about freedom, many abolitionists believed that slavery was

sinful and, therefore, must be eliminated. As Charles Sumner said in 1860:

“[God] set an everlasting difference between man and a chattel, giving to man

dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over every

living thing that moveth upon the earth:—that fight we hold By His donation; but

man over men He made not lord, such title to Himself Reserving, human left

from human free.”

● Lucretia Mott: An abolitionist, pacifist, Quaker, and suffragist. After being

barred from attending the World Anti-Slavery Convention in 1840, she became

interest in women’s rights, and helped convene the Seneca Falls Convention. She

co-wrote the Declaration of Sentiments.

● Elizabeth Cady Stanton: American suffragist and abolitionist who co-founded

the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) in 1890 with

Susan B. Anthony. Attended the Seneca Falls conference and was the principal

author of the Declaration of Sentiments.

● Susan B. Anthony: A noted abolitionist and women’s suffragist. With other

feminists, she organized an landmark convention at Seneca Falls, New York, to

discuss the plight of U.S. women. She co-founded the National American Woman

Suffrage Association (NAWSA) in 1890. Died in 1906. See: Declaration of

Sentiments, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott

● Declaration of Sentiments: The women at the Seneca Falls Convention

(1848) drafted this document. Modeled after the Declaration of Independence, it

declared that “all men and women are created equal” and demanded suffrage for

women. Much like the earlier temperance movement, the women’s crusade soon

became eclipsed by the abolitionist movement and did not resurface until closer

to the turn of the twentieth century. See: Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott,

Susan B. Anthony.

● American Anti-slavery Society: Founded by William Lloyd Garrison in 1833,

it opposed slave traders and owners. Garrison’s radicalism soon alienated many

moderates within the movement when he claimed that the Constitution was a

pro-slavery document. Garrison’s insistence on the participation of women in the

movement led to division among his supporters and the formation of the Liberty

Party, which accepted women, and the American and Foreign Anti-slavery

Society, which did not.

● Liberty Party: Along with his radicalism and his attacks on churches, William

Lloyd Garrison’s insistence on the participation of women in his American

Antislavery Society led to a division among its supporters. This splinter faction,

the Liberty Party, accepted women members. Contrast with: Foreign Anti-slavery

Society.

● Foreign Anti-slavery Society: Along with his radicalism and his attacks on

churches, William Lloyd Garrison’s insistence on the participation of women in

his American Antislavery Society led to a division among its supporters. This

splinter faction, the Foreign Anti-slavery Society, did not accept women

members. Contrast with: Liberty Party.

● Harriet Tubman: She escaped from slavery and later helped others do the

same with the Underground Railroad. Tubman helped John Brown recruit his

band for the raid on Harper’s Ferry. After the Civil War, she advocated for

women’s suffrage.

● Sojourner Truth: An African American abolitionist and suffragist. Born into

slavery in New York and speaking Dutch as her first language, she is notable as

the first black woman to win a court case against a white man. She gave herself

her own name in 1843. She is best known for the “Ain’t I a Woman?” speech,

which advocated for both abolitionism and women’s rights.

● Frederick Douglas: A former slave, Douglass published The North Star, an

antislavery journal that chronicled the ugliness of slavery and argued that the

Constitution could be used as a weapon against slavery. Thus, Douglass argued

for fighting slavery through legal means in contrast to some other radical

abolitionists, who advocated varying degrees of violence to achieve abolition. His

1845 memoir, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, became a bestseller

and inspired many abolitionists. An egalitarian, he also supported women’s

suffrage.

● Underground Railroad: A network of abolitionists and

abolitionist-sympathizers who helped slaves escape into free states and Canada.

Members included Sojourner Truth and Harriet Tubman, among many others.

The Underground Railroad gained greater support after the Compromise of 1850.

At its peak, approximately 1,000 slaves per year escaped.

● Nat Turner’s Rebellion: Turner, an enslaved African American from Virginia,

organized a massive slave uprising in 1831. It resulted in the deaths of over 50

white men, women, and children, and the retaliatory killings of hundreds of

slaves. Afterwards, states across the South passed laws restricting civil rights for

all African Americans, free or slave, and banned educating them as well. See:

slave codes.

● Mormon: The common name for members of the Church of Jesus Christ of

Latter-Day Saints.

● Joseph Smith: Founder of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (the

Mormon Church). According to Mormon tradition, an angel visited the young

Joseph Smith in western New York in 1823 to reveal the location of a sacred text

that was inscribed on gold plates and had been buried by the fabled “Lost Tribe of

Israel.” By 1830, Joseph Smith had allegedly translated the sacred text. He was

murdered by a mob in Illinois in 1844.

● Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints: Informally known as the

Mormon Church, it was founded by Joseph Smith. The followers of Mormonism

were ostracized and harassed—in large part, due to the practice of polygamy

(having multiple wives)—by their surrounding community and left New York to

head west. The Mormons later settled in Utah.

● Brigham Young: Following the 1844 murder of Joseph Smith, he became the

new leader of the Mormons, holding that position for 29 years until his own

death in 1877 from a ruptured appendix. He led his followers west, finally settling

in present-day Utah.

● Transcendentalists: A name for artists and writers of the Romantic Era,

specifically ones who emphasized emotions and the connection between man and

nature. They were a reaction to both the rationality of the Enlightenment and the

burgeoning Industrial Revolution. Examples include Ralph Waldo Emerson and

Henry David Thoreau; they claimed that each person was able to communicate

with God and nature directly, eliminating the need for organized churches. They

promoted individualism, self-reliance, and freedom from social constraints.

● Ralph Waldo Emerson: An American poet and essayist, and member of the

transcendentalist movement. He was a close friend of Henry David Thoreau. Like

Thoreau, he supported abolitionism and stressed self-reliance.

● Henry David Thoreau: A transcendentalist whose book Walden chronicled a

self-initiated experiment in which Thoreau removed himself from society by

living in seclusion in the woods for two years. However, perhaps even more

influential was his essay “On Civil Disobedience,” in which he advocated passive

resistance as a form of justifiable protest. This essay would inspire later social

movement leaders Mahatma Gandhi and Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. An

abolitionist, he also opposed the Mexican-American War.

Birth of American Culture

● Hudson River School: A form of large-scale landscape paintings from the

Romantic era.

● Knickerbockers: A name for members of the Knickerbocker Group, a vague

collection of American authors influenced by the nationalistic mood that followed

the War of 1812. Washington Irving developed American fiction by using

domestic settings and character types for their stories. Tales such as Rip Van

Winkle and The Legend of Sleepy Hollow were based on preexisting stories. Tales

of the frontier were glorified by James Fenimore Cooper, whose The Last of the

Mohicans gained worldwide attention. Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The Scarlet Letter

and Herman Melville’s Moby-Dick addressed important questions regarding

religion and morality.

● Robert Fulton: Inventor of the steamboat, which he created in 1807. Before the

steamboat, river travel was done by flatboats or by keelboats. The steamboat

allowed goods and people to be transported easily both upstream and

downstream. See: Erie Canal.

● Erie Canal: Completed in 1825 with funds provided by the state of New York, it

linked the Great Lakes with the Hudson River. As a result, the cost of shipping

dropped dramatically, and port cities along the length of the canal and its

terminal points began to develop and flourish.

● Nativists: Anti-immigrant activists in the nineteenth century. In this period,

many native-born Americans were Protestants of English ancestry. They disliked

the large numbers of Irish and Germans that began to arrive in the 1840s,

especially due to their Roman Catholic faith, which attracted paranoia about

them being a fifth column for the Pope. Many Central Europeans were also

leftists fleeing from prosecution after the failed Revolutions of 1848. On the West

Coast, Chinese immigrants prompted similar xenophobic sentiments. See:

American Party (Know-Nothing Party), Chinese Exclusion Act, Emergency Quota

Act.

● American Party, or “Know-Nothing Party”: In 1849, a wing of the nativist

movement became a political party called the American Party. The group

opposed both immigration and the election of Roman Catholics to political office.

The members of the party met in secret and would not tell anyone what they

stood for, saying, “I know nothing,” when asked. This provided the basis for the

group’s more common name.

● Eli Whitney: Famously invented the cotton gin in 1793, which sped up the

process of removing the seeds from raw cotton, making cotton the number one

cash crop of the South. Plantation owners switched from growing tobacco to

growing cotton to keep up with increasing demands from domestic and overseas

markets. He also popularized (but did not invent) the concept of interchangeable

machine parts. See: King Cotton.

● King Cotton: Made possible by Eli Whitney’s cotton gin, King Cotton was when

the lucrative cotton export business caused an expansion of slavery, from one

million slaves to four million in 50 years, because more workers were needed to

work the fields. It essentially made civil war inevitable, as slave owners now had

too much invested in the institution of slavery to ever accept voluntarily

emancipation, as some former slave states in the North had. See: slave codes.

● Slave codes: These laws were aimed at oppressing enslaved Africans,

discouraging free blacks from living in the South, and preventing slave revolts.

They were created to support the exploitative slave plantation economy of King

Cotton, as well as to suppress potential slave uprisings like Nat Turner’s

Rebellion. Compare with: Jim Crow laws, sharecropping.