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Geography is the mother of all sciences- one of the oldest fields of study.
2. Physical geography is the study of spatial characteristics of various elements of the physical aspect like weather, climate, ecosystem
3. Human geography is the study of the spatial characteristics of human activity like population, culture, economics, urban areas, and politics
4. 5 themes of geography are location, place, human-environment interaction, movement, region
5. Location- absolute location- the precise spot where something is, according to some system using latitude and longitude
6. Relative location- a description of where something is about something else
7. Place- the specific human and physical characteristics of a location. Site vs situation. Site includes characteristics at the immediate locations- situation refers to the area of a place relative to its surroundings and other places. Sense of place is the way we perceive a place and emotional connection to a particular place. Perception of place, belief, or understanding of what a place is like, but we’ve never been there.
8. human-environment interaction- how humans influence and are affected by the physical world. Cultural ecology-the study of how humans adapt to the environment. Environmental detiorism- the belief that the physical environment determines human behavior and societal development. Possibly- the belief that while the natural environment has an effect on human behavior, different cultures react differently
9. movement - refers to the way that people, goods, ideas, and information move from one place to another. Relates to the interconnections between areas, cultural hearths and cultural diffusions, migration, and trade.
10. region - areas of unique characteristics, ways of organizing people geographically, three types of regions are formal/uniform, functional/nodal, perceptual/ vernacular.
FORMAL REGION- an area with a high level of consistency in a certain cultural or physical attribute. Formal regions are uniform or homogeneous areas where everyone in that region shares common characteristics or attributes like language, climate, or political system. French-speaking part of Canada, the dairying region of North America. Each state can be a formal region
FUNCTIONAL REGION- an area centered on a node, focal point, or central hub surrounded by interconnecting linkages. The primary node in a functional region features surrounding areas with common social, political, or economic purposes that relate to trade =, communications, or transportation- pizza place delivering to certain places and not other places. A functional region can be a territory that is organized around something central such as a city. The distribution of its services is limited to a certain area, which is its functional or main nodal region. Another example of a functional region could be fed-ex delivery.
PERCEPTUAL(VERNACULAR) REGIONS- defined by feelings and prejudices that may or may not be true- it can also be an idea of a person’s mental map- it can be viewed as how people think about or perceive a region, based on factors that may not reflect the truth. Common assumptions are made about the place or people.
CONNECTIONS THROUGH DIFFUSION- culture- all of a group’s learned behaviors, actions, beliefs, and objects. Both material and nonvisible. Both visible and invisible
CULTURAL TRAITS- the building blocks of culture, the elements of a culture.
CULTURAL COMPLEX- interrelated cultural traits.
CULTURAL HEARTHS- the origination area of a unique culture or a specific cultural trait
CULTURAL LANDSCAPE- the visible reflection of a culture, or the built environment
CULTURAL DIFFUISION- while cultures originate in a cultural hearth, many cultures have spread far beyond their hearths - the spreading of information, ideas, behaviors, and other aspects of cultures is known as diffusion- two major forms of cultural diffusion are relocation diffusion and expansion diffusion.
RELOCATION DIFFUSION- the spread of a cultural trait by people who migrate and carry their cultural traits with them- pizza- Italian immigrants bought it with them in the early 1900s- European culture, which spread around the world starting in the 1500s.
EXPANSION DIFFUSION- the spread of cultural traits through direct or indirect exchange without migration
CONTAGIOUS DIFUSION- the cultural trait spreads continuously outward from its hearth through contact among people- rapid and widespread diffusion- like the spread of the flu- the spread of Islam, Buddhism, and Hinduism.
HIERARCHIAL DIFFUSION- cultural traits or innovation spread from one power node to another, jumping over intervening areas- usually start in a major city, person, or class then spread down- eventually the trait will be shared with smaller cities, other people, other social classes, and less developed nations- fashion trends
REVERSE HIERARCHIAL DIFFUSION- a trait that will diffuse from a lower class to a higher class, or from rural communities to urban larger areas- tattoos, Walmart.
STIMULOUS DIFFUSION- when people in a culture adopt an underlying idea or process from another culture but modify it because they reject one trait of it- the speed of concept but with a twist- McDonalds in India, Chinese porcelain in Europe
DEMOGRAPHY- where people are- people distributions are descriptions of locations on the Earth’s surface where individuals or groups live-Ecume is the portion of the Earth's surface occupied by permanent human settlement- 90% of all people live north of the equator. More than half of all people live on about 5% of the land, and almost 9/10ths on less than 20%. Most people live in areas close to sea level. â…” ofthe worlds population is concentrated within 300 miles of the ocean
POPULATION DENSITY- measure population by looking at population density, the number of people occupying an area of land.
ARITHMETIC DENSITY- total number of people in an area- population divided by land area
PHYSIOLOGICAL DENSITY- number of people supported by a unit area of arable land
AGRICULTURAL DENSITY- the ratio of the number of farmers to the amount of arable land
MOST HEAVILY CONCENTRATED- East Asia- southeast asia- south Asia, Europe
CRUDE BIRTH RATE- total number of live births per year for every 1,000 people alive in society
CDR- total number of deaths per year for every 1,000 people alive in society
NIR- percentage by which a population grows in a year
Total fertility rate- the average number of children a woman will have during her childbearing years
IMR- annual number of deaths of infants under 1 compared with total live births
Life expectancy- measures the average number of years a newborn can expect to live at current morbidity levels
EPIDEMIOLOGICAL TRANSITION MODEL
FAMINE STAGE- high death rate. Low life expectancy. The population is stagnant and does not really grow. may grow in small bursts but is not sustainable
RECEDING PANDEMIC STAGE- decrease in death rate. Increase in life expectancy. People are dying in large numbers but the population still has a chance to grow.
DEGENERATIVE DISEASE/ HUMAN CREATED DISEASE- low death rate and increased life expectancy. Heart disease and cancer starts killing off the older generations.
DELAYED DEGENERATIVE DISEASE STAGE- highest life expectancy. Create medical advances to keep people alive. Bypass, chemo, advanced treatments
RE-EMERGENCE OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES- decreased life expectancy. The drugs/medicine for the infectious diseases no longer work effectively.
OVERPOPULATION- Thomas Malthus said the population would outpace food production. While population increases geometrically, food supply increases arithmetically.
MALTHUS SPPORTERS(NEO-MALTHUSIANS)- they agree with Malthus. The growth of less developed countries is outstripping even Malthus’ predictions. The world population is not just stripping food, but also resources. To fix the problem continue programs for population limitation like birth control and family planning.
MALTHUS CRITICS- the worlds food supply is not fixed but expanding.
An increase in technology and genetic food productions has increased the amount food available. A larger population stimulates economic growth to produce greater resources.
Food is increasing more rapidly than predicted by Malthus
TYPES OF MOVEMENT- CYCLIC- begins at home and brings us back to it, creating activity spaces, PERIODIC-a longer period of time away from home, MIGRATION- permanent relocation
Immigration- going to somewhere
emigration - leaving from somewhere
FORCED MIGRATION- caused to move against your own will, involuntarily -slaves, British relocation of prisoners to Australia, US relocation of native Americans, deported
Refugee- someone who leaves their home country because they feel they are being persecuted, they feel it’s necessary for their safety
A refugee emigrates because of- fears of persecution for religion, race, political opinions, nationality, or social group membership.
Fears of circumstance- war, famine, natural disasters
VOLUNTARY MIGRATION- Ravenstein- developed 11 laws that discuss the characteristics of migration
Other characteristics of migrants- most long-distance migrants are adults, 40 % are young adults, and only 5% are over 65
STEP MIGRATION- the phenomenon in which long-distance migration happens in stages
CHAIN MIGRATION- when someone moves somewhere because they have people they know there
PUSH FACTORS- factors that cause you leave that area
PULL FACTORS- factors that cause people to be drawn to that area
UNIT 3- CULTURE
CULTURE- the mix of values, beliefs, behaviors, and material objects that form (i.e. cultivate) a people’s way of life.
CULTURAL GEOGRAPHY- the study of how and why cultures vary over space.
CULTURAL LANDSCAPE- places that reveal a society’s cultural identity through nature and architecture/ artifacts.
DESIGNED LANDSCAPE- consciously designed to embody the cultural ideals of the designer.
VERNACULAR LANDSCAPE- a landscape that comes about through the use of people over time.
HISTORIC SITE- a landscape that is important because of a historical event, activity, or person.
ETHNOGRAPHIC LANDSCAPE- a landscape that contains both natural and cultural resources important to a certain group of people
CULTURAL ECOLOGY- study of the relationship between the natural environment and culture.
ENVIRONMENTAL DETERMINISM- culture is developed completely by the environment
POSSIBILITY- the environment provides possibilities for a culture
ENVIRONMENTAL PERCEPTION- perception of the environment affects culture, perception is developed by the teachings of culture
CULTURAL DETERMINISM- human culture is more important than the physical environment. Humans determine the environment
HABIT→CUSTOM→CULTURE
CULTURAL HEARTH- where a cultural trait first began
Early cultural hearths were almost completely determined by their physical environment- environmental determinism.
INDEPENDENT INVENTION-when someone creates something new without copying or being influenced by someone else's creation
Marriage is an example of independent invention
CULTURAL DIFFUSION- the spread of culture to areas surrounding the cultural hearth
ACCULTURATION- the process of the less dominant culture adopting the traits of the more dominant one
ASSIMILATION- when the less dominant culture loses native customs completely
TRANSCULTURATION- the two-way flow of culture between the dominant and less dominant culture
SYNCTETISM- the combination of different cultural concepts into one like American Taco Tuesday
ETHNOCENTRISM- the practice of judging another culture by the standards of one’s own culture
TRADITIONAL CULTURE- cultures that pass down long-held beliefs, values, and practices.
FOLK CULTURE- cultural practices of small homogenous groups living in traditional societies, folk cultures tend to be isolated and rural, are unique to their location, and diffuse/ spread very very slowly
POPULAR CULTURE- cultural practices of large heterogeneous groups and societies, it produces uniformity across locations, spreads rapidly through
FOLK MUSIC- a story told in song form from the past, less produced more natural
POP MUSIC- purposely made and produced to make a bunch of money, originated around 1900, and became popular after WWII. because of radios, everyone was listening to it like Elvis Presley, Michael Jackson, Taylor Swift
HIPHOP- started in New York, and talks about problems
LANGUAGE
LANGUAGE- a system of communication that uses signs, gestures, marks, or vocal sounds to communicate thoughts, feelings, and ideas.
LINGUISTIC GEOGRAPHY- the study of speech areas and their local variations.
FACT-7100 languages
LANGUAGE DIVERGENCE- language breaks down into new dialects
LANGAUGE CONVERGENCE- two languages become one
RELIGION
RELIGION- a system of beliefs and practices that attempts to order life in terms of culturally perceived ultimate priorities
RELIGION CREATES- places of worship
RELIGION TEACHES- moral guidelines and laws
RELIGION HAS BELIEFS OF CREATION AND AFTERLIFE-moral guidelines and laws
MONOTHEISM- belief in one God
POLYTHESIM-belief in multiple gods
ANIMISM- the belief that inanimate objects and animals have spirits and conscious life. Moana land, avatar tree.
COSMOGONY- beliefs on the origins of the universe
CALENDARS- beliefs about important dates and seasons
ETHNIC CALANDERS- tend to focus on climate, seasons, and important harvests.
UNIVERSALIZING CALENDERS- tend to focus on important events in the founder's life
SACRED SPACES- beliefs about where to worship or bury the dead.
SACRED PLACES- beliefs about where important events occurred.
SACRED ADMINISTRATION- beliefs about how a religion should be governed.
CATHOLIC CHURCH- hierarchial administration. Pope, cardinals, archbishops, bishops,and priests
WHAT IS A STATE
STATE- in international relations, the formal term for a country
To be considered a state it needs to….
Have defined boundaries
Has sovereignty over its domestic and international affairs
Is recognized by other states
SOVEREIGNTY- the power of a political unit to govern itself
IMPACTS OF NOT BEING RECOGNIZED AS A STATE
Not as protected under international law
Cannot effectively participate in international politics
Lack of treaty-making policy
STATES WITH LIMITED RECOGNITION
South Korea
North Korea
Armenia not by Pakistan
Israel
Cyprus
CITY STATES- a small sovereign state made up of a city and its surrounding area \
NATION- a group of people who share a common cultural heritage and have the desire to express their self determination
Unified by common beliefs or values
Claim a particular space as their homeland
Desire to establish/maintain their own state
Eg- Mexicans, the French, Koreans
NATION STATE- a singular nation of people who fulfill the qualifications of a state.
Iceland - Icelanders make up 94% of its total population
Founded on an island that had no Indigenous population
Japan
Japanese makeup 99% of its total population
Strong national...
MULTINATIONAL STATES- a state that contains more than one nation
Most multinational states have a dominant nation that controls much of the power
Eg- America or Canada
AUTONOMOUS REGIONS- a defined area within a state that has a high degree of self-government and freedom from its parent state.
STATELESS NATIONS- cultural groups that have no independent political entity of thier own
Kurds in kurdistan(turkey, iraq, iran and syria)
MULTISTATE NATIONS- when a nation has a state of its own but also stretches across the borders of other states
Most Hungarians live in hungary but many also live in transylvania in romania
Korean nation is divided
BOUNDARIES
WHY DO BOUNDARIES EXIST- to determine the reach of a government power
To separate people who don’t/ can’t get along.
To control the movement of people and goods, trade immigration, tourism
Protection from outsiders
Preserve societal values/norms
NATURAL BOUNDARY- a boundary based on natural physical features that separate entities( rivers, mountains, deserts, etc)
GEOMETRIC BOUNDARIES- a boundary that’s straight light that does not account for natural features. Eg. line between Indonesia and papa new guinea
ANTECEDENT- a boundary drawn before a large population was present
Eg. US Canada 49th parallel
SUBSEQUENT BOUNDARIES- a boundary drawn to accommodate religious, ethnic, linguistic, or economic differences.
Eg. between India and Pakistan to separate for religious differences between Hindus and Muslims
RELIC BOUNDARY- a boundary that no longer functions, but evidence of it still exists on the landscape.
SUPERIMPOSED BOUNDARIES- a boundary drawn by outside powers
DEVOLUTION + BALKANIZATION
CENTRIPETAL FORCE - a force that brings people together, usually leading to the creation or strengthening of states.
NATIONALISM- A nation’s desire to create and maintain a state of its own
Eg. cultural homogeneities like language and religion
CENTRIFUGAL- a force that tends to break states apart or prevent them from forming.
Can lead to failed states, uneven development, stateless nations, ethnic nationalist movements, etc…
Eg culture heterogeneity
DEVOLUTION- the transfer of political power from the central government to lower, subnational levels of government.
Decisions can be made locally, W/O the need for permission from the central government
Intended to reduce tensions and maintain the state
FACTORS LEADING TO DEVOLUTION
Very large countries, far from capital
Geographic isolation due to natural features,
Physical disconnect usually results in cultural disconnect.
FRANCE- Island of Corsica, the French government gave them limited autonomy to try to end the push for independence.
ECONOMIC PROBLEMS- if the government can’t regulate the economy, create jobs, etc.., people will call for change. Higher taxes, and allocation of resources.
ITALY- The north is Italy’s powerhouse, tax comes from the north and helps the south.
SOCIETAL PROBLEMS
Discrimination
Xenophobia
Corruption
overpopulation
ETHNIC SPERATISM- SUBNATIONILSM- when people's primary allegiance is to a traditional group or ethnicity, rather than to the state. Can strengthen the desire to create their own state.
SPAIN- many subcultures wanted autonomy
CANDA - people identify as French Canadian
IRREDENTISM- annexation of another state’s territory based on shared culture, history, or ethnicity
Hitler thought if your country is more than 50% German, it should be a part of Germany.
ETHNIC CLENSING- a process in which one more powerful ethnic group forcibly removes or eliminates another from a homogeneous state.
Hitler with the holocaust
If carried out by the government, it will lead to a major call for change due to abuse of power
TERRORISM- organized violence, usually for a political goal
BALKANIZATION
The breaking of a state into smaller, often hostile states along ethnolinguistic lines
This can occur in multinational states
YUGOSLAVIA- after WWII Yugoslavia re-established as a state of six republics plus two autonomous regions.
In the 1980s Tito died, the economy declined, sub-nationalism grew and ethnic tension broke
Serbs felt threatened by Albanians in Kosovo and the leader encouraged Serbs in the republic to unite
In 1990: multi-party elections were held in each republic
Independence parties won in Macedonia, Bosnia, Slovenia, Croatia
140,000 casualties
In 1991 Slovenia and Croatia declared independence, and Macedonia left via referendum
1992 Bosnia voted for independence
GLOBALIZATION
Integration of markets, ideas, and communication worldwide
BENEFITS
Good global relations “trade”
Low prices on goods
More jobs
Increased economic development
DRAWBACKS
Less cultural diversity
Less business diversity = monopolies
Environmental problems
Threats to sovereignty and national identity
COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES- advances in communications technology have facilitated state sovereignty's breakdown.
TRANSNATIONAL CORPORATIONS - companies that conduct business on a global scale
No strong connection to any one place- can move from one country to another to take advantage of lower wages/taxes, weaker safety/ environmental laws
The ability to move operations makes them less influenced by any one country and a potential threat to national sovereignty
DEMOCRATIZATION- the transition from absolute governments to more representative forms of politics.
Facilitated by technological advancement, eg groups in some countries have used social media to form movements against the government
ARAB SPRING- a movement of pro-democracy rebellions that started in late 2010.
Began with anti-government demonstrations in Tunisia, facilitated and documented using social media.
Governments fell, and regimes changed in Tunisia, Egypt, and Yemen.
Democracy did not come to every place that protested, but the power of social media for organizing dissent against the government was clear.
SUPERNATIONALISM- transcending national boundaries, authority, or interests
AGRICULTURE
AGRICULTURE- the process by which humans alter the landscape in order to raise crops and livestock for consumption and trade
EVOLUTION OF AGRICULTURE
*first neolithic agricultural revolution
* Second Agricultural Revolution 1700s
Green revolution 1960s
1st (neolithic) Agricultural revolution- the origin of farming, marked by the first domestication of plants and animals.
Began in the fertile crescent 10-12k years ago
Raising plants and animals for human use
Simplistic tools
SUBSISTENCE FARMING- when farmers consume the crops that they grow and raise
Transition away from hunter-gatherer lifestyle
AGRICULTURAL HEARTHS- agriculture developed in places with fertile soil, an abundance of water and precipitation, and moderate climates.
THE FERTILE CRESCENT- present-day Middle East from the Mediterranean to the Persian Gulf
Excellent farmland
Crops - barely, wheat, lentils, olives, oats, rye
Animals- sheep, goats, cattle, pigs
1st agr rev: diffusion- THE COLUMBIAN EXCHANGE- the global movement of plants and animals between Afro-Eurasia and the Americas following the voyage of Christopher Columbus.
1st agr rev: effects- establishment of first permanent human settlements bc of agricultural surplus
Population growth
Development of social hierarchy
Specialization of labor
Declining status of women
2ND AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION
Beginning in the 1700s, the advances of the Industrial Revolution were used to increase food supplies and support population growth.
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION- a set of changes in technology that increased manufacturing productivity, reshaping how people worked, behaved, and where they lived.
*started in England in the 1700s’
2nd agr rev: traits- mechanization of agricultural production
Advances in transportation
Development of large-scale irrigation
Improved knowledge of fertilizers, soils, and selective breeding of plants and animals
Changes in consumption patterns of agricultural goods
Shift from subsistence to commercial farming.
2nd agr rev: effects- fewer larger, much more productive farms.
Less need for as many farmers= more people available for work in factories
Growth of urban centers
Better diets and longer life expectancies
GREEN REVOLUTION- beginning in the 1960’s, it was the third agricultural revolution which involved the development of better and more efficient farming equipment and practices.
Green rev: causes
Massive population growth in the 20th century, mostly in developing regions of the world, necessitated, increased production( more spending on research and development).
Green rev: traits
Use of biotechnology
Development of higher-yielding, disease resistant, faster growing varieties of plants
Increased use of fertilizer and pesticides to reduce agricultural losses
Development of more large-scale irrigation projects
Double cropping- growing more than one crop in a year
Green rev: traits
SEED HYBRIDIZATION- the process of breeding together two plants that have desirable characteristics
GMOs- genetically modified organisms, produced when humans use engineering techniques to change the DNA of a seed.
Green rev: diffusion
Began in Mexico in the 1940s with American scientist Norman Borlaug
AFRICA- The green revolution failed in Africa bc of its harsh landscapes, climates diversity of insects, plants, viruses, soil, and lack of sufficient infrastructure.
VAN THUNEN'S MODEL OF AGRICULTURAL LAND USE
-----> An economic model that suggests a pattern for the types of products farmers would produce at different positions relative to the market where they sold their goods
Created in 1826 by German farm owner and economist Johann von Thunen
He believed decisions regarding what to produce were based largely on transportation costs and that these costs were proportional to distance from the market.
KEY ASSUMPTIONS- A city is an isolated region within which all agricultural products are sold at a central market.
Markets are situated in the middle of plains that are flat and featureless and within which all land has similar characteristics
Farmers are rational economic producers/ they want to make as much money as possible.
INTENSIVE FARMING- agriculture that involves greater input of capital and paid labor relative to the space being used- market gardening, plantation, mixed crop/livestock. Make as much money as possible
EXTENSIVE FARMING- agriculture that uses fewer inputs of capital and paid labor relative to the amount of space being used- shifting cultivation, nomadic herding, ranching.
HORTICULTURE- a type of agriculture that includes market gardening and dairy farming- it produces perishable items and farmers need to get them to the market quickly.
FORESTS- wood was an extremely important resource- wood products should be located pretty close to the market because they were used so often and difficult to transport.
GRAIN FARMING- Grain crops such as wheat and corn don’t spoil quickly and aren't difficult to transport- lots of land is required to grow.
RANCHING- Livestock could be farther from the market because they could walk there- it requires lots of land.
DISTANCE DECAY- a geographical theory that states that the interaction between two places decreases as the distance between them increases.
BID RENT THEORY- A geographical economic theory that explains that price demand for real estate decreases as the distance from the city center increases.
NON-ISOTROPIC PLAINS- not all land is suitable for agriculture
TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCEMENT- transportations, trains, planes, cars
Refrigeration techniques
New heating methods
new crops
MULTIPLE MARKETS AND GLOBALIZATION- Farmers sell their goods to many markets ,and customers purchase goods from many markets. Trade is conducted on a worldwide scale.
SPECIALTY FARMING REGIONS- Fruit, vegetable, and nut farming doesn’t always happen near the market anymore, freezing and canning, preservation and refrigeration, and larger scale production.
POLITICS AND AGRICULTURE
SUBSISTENCE FARMING- farmers focus on raising food they need to live
COMMERCIAL FARMING- farming in which farmers focus on raising crops to sell for profit.- developed countries
DECLINE OF SMALL FARMS- Since the second agricultural revolution, large farming operations have been replacing small family farms
Enclosure acts
Shifts in employment to industry services rather than agriculture
Shifts in settlement form rural to urban
Inability to compete with large corporations financially.
RISE OF AGRIBUSINESS- The integration of various steps of production in the food-processing industry
Includes large-scale commercial agriculture and also the steps of processing and production, transportation, marketing, retail, and research development.
Highly commercial, highly mechanized, uses chemicals and biotechnology to raise crops and animals.
BENEFITS- steady reliable income for farmers
Cheaper prices increased yield
More efficient production
More money dedicated to research and development
DRAWBACKS- favors cash/luxury crops
Monoculture
Uses lots of pesticides, fertilizers, and equipment, increasing pollution and health concerns
Lower job levels ( replaced by machines
Commodity chain- process used by corporations to gather resources, transform into goods, and then transport to customers.
ECONOMIES OF SCALE- the cost advantage experienced by a company when it increases its levels of output
More efficient production leads to more profit for the company and lower prices for the consumer
GLOBAL SUPPLY CHAIN- food and other agricultural products are part of a global supply chain( how goods or services move from the supplier to the customer).
Impacted by infrastructure(distribution systems), politics, and trade relationships.
POLITICAL SYSTEMS-
COMMUNIST/ AUTHOTORITATION STATES- Farmers are sometimes told what and how much to plant and what price they can sell their goods for collective farming or state-run farms
Capitalist states- competition and profit drive agricultural decision making- tend to import more agricultural products
GOVERNMENT POLICIES- subsidies and loans- granted to help start or maintain farms, stabilize food prices, and ensure production- granted more to male producers than female.
Land use- greenbelts and protected areas cannot be used for agriculture
URBAN MORPHOLOGY- the physical layout/ structure of a city.
A cities structure can have economic, social, political, and enviromental effects, which is why urban planning is so important.
ZONING
FUNCTIONAL ZONATION- the idea that zones or regions of an urban area have specific and distinct purposes
Residential, commercial, and industrial zones form cities.
HIGH DENSITY IN RESIDENTIAL AREAS
Low density - has its own space amount of land - suburbs
Medium density- townhomes and row houses, not much area
High density- very close compacted apartments not much space.
URBAN MODELS- researchers developed a variety of models to help describe and explain different types of cities and the neighborhoods they were composed of.
ECONOMIC, SOCIAL & POLITICAL URBAN CHALLENGES
In developing countries, most issues are caused by mass migration and lack of planning
In developed countries, most e and c political issues are caused by deindustrialization and inequality
Cities are very economically, ethnically, and culturally diverse, and these differences can cause division
Governments must cope with the intersecting problems of multiple groups.
CULTURE OF POVERTY- when poverty is persistent and people become accustomed to it.
Factors like lack of affordable housing, inadequately funded schools, lack of job opportunities, and difficulty gaining access to credit.
LACK OF AFFORDABLE HOUSING- affordable housing is housing that can be afforded by those who have an income below the national median household income.
Most major cities in developed countries have shortage of affordable housing.
GOVERNMENT INTERVENTION- governments respond to shortage of affordable housing in various ways
Providing subsidies to help with cost of housing
Rent control laws keep some affordable units available.
Building of public housing developments(projects)
GOVERNMENT HOUSING- built in the inner city, known for being poorly maintained.
REDLINING- the process by which banks refused loans to those who wanted to purchase/ improve properties in certain urban areas.
Areas targeted were usually populated by minorities
Illegal today but practice was very widespread 1920’s- 1970’s
FILTERING- the change in the use of a home from a single-family home to rented units in a multifamily dwelling to eventual abandonment
URBAN DECAY- deterioration of an urban area due to neglect or age
HOMELESSNESS- the condition of not having a permanent place to live
Factors like lack of affordable housing, high unemployment, lack of social assistance, mental illness, and substance abuse.
GENTRIFICATION- the process of wealthier residents moving into a neighborhood, renovating properties, and making it unaffordable for existing residents
Newcomers are often young professionals or older couples whose children have moved out
Leads to increased property value and a possible reduction in the crime rate.
CITIES + THE ENIVRONMENT
Cities impact the environment in 2 main ways: human modification of the natural environment and highly concentrated populations magnifying environmental pressure.
URBAN CANYONS- streets lined with tall buildings that can channel and intensify wind and prevent natural sunlight from reaching the ground
Soil is compacted and replaced with surfaces impermeable to water, leading to flooding.
URBAN HEAT ISLAND- part of a city that is warmer than the surrounding area due to more buildings.
URBAN SPRAWL- the rapid spread of development outward from the inner city
WILDLIFE+CITIES- cities destroy habitats and cause animals to lose space to live, and doesn’t know where to go. It could live in cities, but it would disturb people. Could cause wild cats
WATER POLLUTION-
construction + industry
Sewage disposal
Oil pollution
Contaminated wastewater
Chemical dumping
AIR POLLUTION- vehicle emissions, construction, industrial exhaust, deforestation, burning of fossil fuels.
BROWNFIELD- An abandoned industrial property that has the potential to be a hazard or pollutant
Removal can improve health and safety of community/environment
Renovation can create hosuing
LEAST COST THEORY- developed by alfred weber
Theory that attempts to predict the location of manufacturing relative to the location of necessary raw materials and the market.
ASSUMPTIONS- the area is an isotropic plane
Population is homogeneous
Labor is immobile and unlimited
Markets have unlimited demand and perfect competition
Products are shipped to a single market
Transportation costs are determined by
TRANSPORTATION- cost of transportation is determined by the weight of the materials and the distance shipped should be minimized
WEIGHT OF RAW MATERIALS- raw materials are heavier than the final product so companies should try to locate manufacturing near the source of the raw materials.
BULK REDUCING INDUSTRY: STEEL- iron ore mined from earth. Impurities are removed.
If the final product is heavier, the factory should be close to the market.
LOCATIONAL TRIANGLE-
AGGLOMERATION- the spatial grouping of businesses in order to share costs.
Can assist each other through shared talent pool of workers, services, and facilities.
Eg when several factories share the cost of building an access road to connect them with a highway.
Webber argued that companies should minimize transportation and labor costs and maximize agglomeration.
ENERGY SOURCE- Power sources needed to produce goods can dictate where factories are located.
TRANSPORTATION- improved transportation technologies mean being located near a market is less important.
BREAK OF BULK POINT- where goods are transferred from one means of transportation to another.
FOOTLOSSE BUSINESS- a business that can pack up and leave for a new location quickly and easily.
Don’t need raw materials and large spaces
Typically tech-centered
TRANSNATIONAL COMPANIES- large international companies with locations in more than one country.
FRONT OFFICES- offices for an executive branch of workers, usually loathed in somewhere highly visible, important, and expensive
BACK OFFICES- cheaper office spaces typically for non executive employees, linked to the front office via tech
GOVERNEMNT INCENTIVES- international level- trade agreements,
At national/regional level- different legal/economic/ business procedures in different countries.
STUDY ECONOMIC SECTORS.
ROSTOW'S THEORY OF ECONOMIC GROWTH.- assumed that every country wanted to and would modernize, but at different speeds. A development model in 1960 describes the shift from traditional to modern forms of society
STAGE 1- TRADITIONAL SOCIETY
ECONOMY- dependent on primary sector activities for subsistence
TECHNOLOGY- limited technology)labor intensive
TRADE- limited trade based on the barter system
SOCIETY- lack of class or individual mobility; tradition prioritized, and change viewed negatively
STAGE 2- PRECONDITION FOR TAKEOFF
ECONOMY- shift to commercial agriculture
TECHNOLOGY- increasing spread of technology advances
TRADE- increasing specialization generates an agricultural surplus for trading
SOCIETY- start of individual social mobility
STAGE 3- takeoff
ECONOMY-industrialization increases, workers shift from agriculture to manufacturing
TECHNOLOGY- technological breakthroughs tied to industrialization
TRADE- international trade expands
SOCIETY- beginning of urbanization; evolution of new political and social institutions to support industrialization; further class stratification
STAGE 4- drive to maturity
ECONOMY- economy diversifies, existing industries expand
TECHNOLOGY- improved energy, transportation, communication systems
TRADE- economy produces a wide range of goods and services and has less reliance on imports
SOCIETY- large-scale investment in social infrastructure (schools, universities, hospitals) enables increased social mobility.
STAGE 5- high mass consumption
ECONOMY- service sector becomes increasingly dominant; economy geared towards mass consumption
TECHNOLOGY- advanced communication and transportation technologies
TRADE- reliant on countries in earlier stages for raw materials
SOCIETY- desire to create egalitarian societies.
Moving from one stage to the next- development requires investment of capital and stable conditions
CRITICISMS- development isn’t always linear
Does not account for differences that could hinder development
WALLERSTEIN'S WORLD SYSTEMS THEORY: This is an alternative look at what Rostow was doing. He said that countries don't do this on their own; instead, they work interdependently.
Countries of the world are all part of an interconnected economic system
CORE COUNTRIES- the most economically and politically dominant countries that receive goods and raw materials from the periphery and the semi-periphery
Benefit from and hold power over semi periphery countries and periphery countries.
UK,US, JAPAN, GERMANY
SEMIPERIPHERY- middle income countries that receive raw materials from the periphery and provide the core with goods and services it used to provide for itself
Exploits the periphery, but exploited by the core.
China, India, brazil, mexico
PERIPHERY- least-developed countries that provide the core and semi-periphery with inexpensive raw materials, labor, and agricultural production.
Afghanistan, Zimbabwe, Peru
CRITICISMS- somewhat outdated, limited practical use, fails to recognize NGO(nongovernment organization).
Main difference- wallerstein, countries work together, interdependent,
Rostow, linear growth