Art History Study Notes

Chapter 46 Introduction

  • The Protestant Reformation was a movement initiated due to concerns regarding papal overreach in Northern Europe.
    • One of the primary figures of this movement was the Protestant reformer Martin Luther (1483-1546).
    • In 1517, Luther led a scholarly dispute against the Catholic Church by publishing his Ninety-Five Theses.
    • He translated the Bible into German, which allowed for individual interpretation without reliance on clergy.
    • Protestant churches typically relied less on visual imagery compared to Catholic Churches.
    • This provided merchants with new opportunities to cultivate avenues for art patronage.
    • Artistic themes and subjects began to emerge that moved outside the traditional church context.
    • Significant reformers of the time included:
    • Desiderius Erasmus in Holland
    • Martin Luther in Germany
    • In 1517, Luther’s Ninety-Five Theses not only established the Lutheran church in Germany, but also planted the seeds for broader religious reform.
    • John Calvin emerged as a key figure in Switzerland, contributing to the Reformation.
    • King Henry VIII famously broke with Rome in 1534, affecting the religious landscape.
    • Holy Roman Emperor Charles V spearheaded the Catholic cause against Protestant reforms.
    • The increase in literacy and the widespread use of the printing press allowed many Europeans to engage in religious debates.
    • The years of political and religious strife that ensued had a profound impact on artists.
    • Iconoclasm, which refers to the destruction of religious images, led to a mass destruction of artistic works during this period.

Albrecht Durer Self Portrait

  • Durer's self-portrait presents a half-length, frontally posed figure, introducing a new format in portraiture.
    • The static gaze is reminiscent of icons, typically reserved for depictions of Christ.
    • Naturalism is emphasized through the minute detail, exemplified by the representation of each strand of hair.
    • Durer included his monogram, name, and the date in gold letters as a means of self-promotion.
    • His rich attire indicates a high social standing.

Quentin Massys, The Money Changer and His Wife

  • This is an example of an occupational portrait:
    • The goldsmith is depicted weighing coins while his wife is distracted from her religious devotions by the money, a reminder for viewers to maintain focus on their religious beliefs amidst the distractions of a newly prosperous commercial world.

Catherine Van Hemessen, Self Portrait at an Easel

  • This work is significant as it is believed to be the first portrait of a female artist at her easel.
    • Female artists during this period faced numerous obstacles in their careers, but some received training from family members.
    • Similar to Van Hemessen, many female artists often ended their careers upon marriage.
    • An inscription on her work promotes her skills at the young age of 20, reflecting the beginning of her career.

Albrecht Durer, Great Piece of Turf

  • In this work, Durer demonstrated an intense observation of small natural details to gain a better understanding of the wider universe.
    • The highly realistic image exhibits scientifically precise observation.
    • The balance of movement and shape in the rendering exemplifies both realism and beauty.

Chapter 47 Sixteenth Century Art of Italy (1500-1600)

Mannerism

  • The Mannerist movement was characterized by artificiality, grace, and elegance, often replacing ordered balance.
    • Artists involved in this movement distorted conventional forms and created enigmatic compositions.
    • Painters crafted contrived compositions and irrational spatial environments, filled with references to prior works.
    • This style emerged as an anti-Classical movement prioritizing artificiality over realistic references.
    • Patrons favored esoteric subjects that were more complex or obscure.
    • Notable characteristics of Mannerist art:
    • Painters and sculptors utilized quoted references to earlier works with playful self-awareness.
    • Architects employed Classical orders in unconventional manners.

Mannerism in Architecture

  • Mannerist architecture features:
    • Visual instability caused by irregular spacing of elements.
    • Distortion of classical motifs and rejection of classical orders.
    • Broken pediments and deliberate adaptations of architectural forms for innovative applications.
    • Examples include:
    • Blind windows.
    • Columns of giant order rising multiple stories.
    • Monumental staircases that spread wide at the bottom, occasionally with curved steps.
    • Segmental arches and rustication that is heaviest at the base and decreases upwards in the structure.
    • Playful motifs and bizarre combinations in design.
    • Skewed perspectives, contributing to the overall sense of artificiality.

Tintoretto, Last Supper

  • In Tintoretto’s portrayal of the Last Supper, the contrast between the dark interior and the divine light emanating from Christ and the apostles is significant.
  • Everyday people, represented by servants in the foreground, are introduced into this miraculous event, blending the sacred and the ordinary.
  • The dramatic diagonal perspective in the composition anticipates stylistic developments in Baroque art.

Giacomo da Vignola and Giacomo Della Porta, Church of the Gesù

  • The Church features pilasters that extend outward towards the middle, creating a visually sculptural and three-dimensional facade.
  • The short transepts and absence of a narthex help unite the interior space into a cohesive whole.
  • The wide, unobstructed nave was designed without side aisles, allowing it to accommodate larger crowds, establishing it as a prototype for Jesuit churches well into the twentieth century.

Chapter 51 Early Modern Art of South Asia and Southeast Asia

Ceramics from the Hoi An Hoard

  • These ceramics were discovered in a shipwreck off the coast of central Vietnam and are representative of Vietnamese blue and white ware.
  • Vietnamese ceramicists acquired knowledge of porcelain manufacturing from the Chinese during the two-decade Ming Dynasty occupation of Vietnam (1407-28).

Key Term: Porcelain

Ceremonial Banner

  • This 650-year-old Indian textile is preserved in a Toraja village on the Indonesian island of Sulawesi.
    • It is regarded as Lusaka (an Indonesian term for a sacred heirloom) and is treasured as a “cloth of the ancestors.”
    • The banner is woodblock-printed and resist-dyed, with a radiocarbon date c. 1350.

Buland Darwaza

  • This monumental gateway leads to a congregational mosque.
  • It showcases architectural polychromy, chhatris along the roofline, and a prominent pishtaq.

Key Terms

  • Pishtaq
  • Iwan
  • Architectural Polychromy
  • Chhatri

Panch Mahal

  • The Panch Mahal is characterized by an arcade that serves as a covered walkway constructed with a series of arches supported by piers.
  • Jali refers to a perforated stone or lattice screen, typically adorned with calligraphic or geometric patterns.

Diwan-i-Khas

  • Akbar's private audience hall is a pavilion consisting of a single room, two-stories high.
    • The interior is dominated by a pillar that is capped by an oversized capital.
    • This is significant because Akbar would sit atop the capital during audiences.

Key Term: Capital

"Krishna Holds Up Mount Govardhan to Shelter the Villagers of Braj"

  • This illustration is from a genealogy of the Hindu god Krishna, who is one of Vishnu's incarnations.
  • It is characteristic of Akbar-period painting where court artists conceived the compositions, although the iconography aligns with Hindu religious texts.
  • Artists merged aspects of Persian painting with South Asian artistic traditions and elements drawn from European prints.

Bichitr, Jahangir Preferring a Sufi Shaykh to Kings

  • Jahangir (r. 1605-27), son of Akbar, was a notable patron of the arts.
  • Court artists crafted allegorical portraits with intricate iconography that intertwines themes of Jahangir's supreme power alongside spiritual motifs.
  • A self-portrait of Bichitr, the artist, appears in the lower left of the piece.
  • Inlay decoration, a technique where small pieces of precisely cut and fitted colored stone create patterns or images, is showcased here.
  • Calligraphy, defined as the art of expressive, decorative, or carefully descriptive hand lettering or handwriting, is also featured.
  • The technique of Pietra Dura (also known as Parchin Kari in South Asia) refers to the inlay technique that produces intricate patterns using colored stone.

Taj Mahal

  • The Taj Mahal was commissioned by Mughal ruler Shah Jahan (r. 1628-58) as a mausoleum for his wife, Mumtaz Mahal.
  • It forms part of an extensive 42-acre complex that includes a charbagh (a garden of paradise), mosque, assembly hall, gateway, bazaars, and caravanserais.
  • The structure is emblematic of Mughal architectural principles during Shah Jahan’s reign, characterized by:
    • Bilateral symmetry
    • Tripartite compositions
    • Repetition of forms and motifs
    • Careful proportions and lush details, many of which reference paradise.

Key Terms

  • Mausoleum
  • Charbagh
  • Caravanserai
  • Bilateral Symmetry
  • Façade
  • Minaret
  • Plinth
  • Chamfer-Cornered
  • Inlay
  • Calligraphy
  • Pietra Dura

Sahibdin, "The Siege of Lanka"

  • This work is from a manuscript of the Ramayana, a Hindu epic narrating the adventures of the god Rama.
  • The painting contains about 450 full-page representations that depict multiple moments in time.
  • Made for the Mewar ruler, Rana Jagat Singh, this specific painting illustrates the siege of Ravana's palace at Lanka by Rama and his allies (monkey and bear).

Conclusion

  • The competition among the rulers of Spain, France, and England for the title of Holy Roman Emperor, the highest secular leadership in Europe, shaped many aspects of art and culture.
  • The Protestant and Catholic reformations caused shifting alliances that directly influenced the production and themes of art.
  • The colonial exchange of material goods and the movement of people had a dual impact: positively enhancing European culture while decimating indigenous cultures through processes of displacement and disease.
  • Gil de Siloe's Colegio de San Gregorio displays elaborate carvings in an eclectic style, prominently incorporating Gothic, Mudejar, and Plateresque elements with intricate relief carvings around royal insignia.
  • Pedro Machuca's Palace of Charles V stands as an early example of Renaissance classical architecture in Spain, hidden within the Alhambra palace, originally built by Muslims and later converted into a Catholic royal court during the Reconquista, illustrating the merging of classical aesthetics with religious power.
  • The Refredador (water cooler) represents a Morisco ceramic innovation, demonstrating a metallic sheen called lusterware, which was introduced to Spain through Muslim artisans and their trade despite persecution.
  • Jean Clouet's portrait of Francis I showcases Grand style formalism, wherein the king's features are rendered realistically to signify his power and dominance.