International Security Study Notes

Unit 7: International Security

This section provides a detailed overview of the historical context, theories, and contemporary issues in international security, focusing on the post-Cold War era.

Periodizing the Post-Cold War Era

  • Broadly, the post-Cold War era can be divided into three key periods:
        - Liberal and American hegemonic triumphalism (1991 – 2001)
        - 9/11 and the ‘War on Terror’ Era (2001 – 2008-2012ish)
        - The return of multipolar great power politics (2008-2012ish – present)
  • The exact demarcation of these eras is often debated among scholars without universal agreement.

Liberal and American Hegemonic Triumphalism

Overview

  • Friedrich Fukuyama, a notable philosopher, termed this period the ‘End of History’ based on Hegelian philosophy.
        - Hegelian belief: History progresses through various ‘stages of human freedom,’ paralleling Marx's modes of production but emphasizing ideas.
        - Each historical stage is viewed as a step toward greater freedom.

Fukuyama’s Argument

  • Fukuyama argued that the end of the Cold War signified:
        - “The end-point of mankind's ideological evolution and the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government.”
  • Despite the persistence of non-liberal regimes (e.g., North Korea, Iran), the legitimacy of these ideologies was largely unchallenged post-Cold War.
        - Result: Crisis in socialist and communist ideologies; the ‘Communist Horizon’ vanished as described by Enzo Traverso.

Fukuyama on Illiberal States

  • Recently, Fukuyama reaffirmed his position arguing that countries like the People's Republic of China (PRC) and Russia do not provide viable alternatives to liberal democracy.
  • He posits that efforts are necessary to preserve liberal democracy in the West and raises several questions regarding its future viability, particularly in light of political changes such as Trump’s election.

Branko Milanovic’s Perspective

  • Economist Branko Milanovic proposed that the 'end of history' could signify a regression to chaos and perpetual war:
        - “Perhaps the real meaning of the 'end of history' is that we shall go back to the prehistory of wars of all against all.”

Shift in International Politics

  • The United States emerged as a unipolar superpower post-Cold War, leading to a shift in foreign policy from containment to liberal interventionism:
        - Definition: The use of military force to intervene in other countries to promote liberal values, primarily human rights.
        - This shift included:
            1. A reinterpretation of 'security' focusing on individuals rather than solely state interests.
            2. Increased emphasis on various non-state actors and ideologies posing threats to security.

Human Security

  • The concept of human security gained prominence in the 1990s, defined as:
        - “A framework that focuses on vulnerable individuals rather than states as the reference point for security.” (Sens and Stoett, 2013: 522)
        - Objective: Ensure individual freedom from threats to rights, safety, and lives, both violent and non-violent.

  • Critique: The discourse of human rights was used by the US and allies to legitimize interventions for geopolitical interests.
        - Questions Raised:
            - Should human rights concerns override state sovereignty?
            - Is intervention justified to protect human rights or prevent crimes against humanity?

Legal Framework for Interventions

  • The US took advantage of a less confrontational UNSC under Boris Yeltsin’s Russia and began using Chapter VII of the UN Charter, enabling intervention in conflicts deemed threats to peace.
  • Notable interventions included:
        - First Gulf War (1990-91): Justified rhetorically rather than on human rights grounds.
        - Somalian Civil War (1993-2005) and Bosnia (1995-2002), both of which encountered significant challenges that moderated US interventionism.

US Hegemony

  • Despite a reduced willingness to commit troops, the US retained its hegemonic stance believing that spreading liberal ideology contributed to global stability.
        - For instance, characterizing China as a potential partner due to its economic reforms while maintaining exceptionalism.
  • The US did not join the International Criminal Court (ICC), reflecting a belief that it must operate outside international norms to enforce order.

9/11 and the ‘War on Terror’ Era

Overview of 9/11 Attacks

  • September 11, 2001, marked a significant turning point with terrorist attacks by Al-Qaeda aiming to influence US presence in Muslim countries, particularly Saudi Arabia, disrupting the narrative of the ‘End of History.’
  • Post-9/11, security discourse shifted towards counter-terrorism.

War on Terror Operations

  • The US and its allies launched the War on Terror, focusing on organizations and states linked with terrorism.
        - Significant operations included:
            - Afghanistan (2001-2021): Targeted Taliban for harboring Al-Qaeda operatives; resulted in substantial military expenditure and civilian casualties.
            - Iraq (2003-2011): Justified initially on connections with terrorism, later shifted to 'weapons of mass destruction' and eventually to promoting human rights.
                - Costly in financial and human terms, greatly diminishing US legitimacy globally.

Understanding Terrorism

Definitions

  • Terrorism defined as:
        - “The systematic use of coercive intimidation, usually to serve political ends.” (Sens and Stoett), emphasizing its contested nature.
  • Distinction exists between domestic and international terrorism, though the lines are increasingly blurred due to globalization (e.g., actions by Al-Qaeda, ISIS).

State Terrorism

  • States can also perpetrate terror:
        - Examples: Pinochet's Chile, French actions in Algeria illustrate state terrorism, which serves to suppress dissent.
        - States may also sponsor terrorism through resources and safe havens.

The Weapon of the Weak

  • Terrorism is often seen as a strategy of the weak, aiming to challenge authority with limited means.
  • This viewpoint generates ambivalence, as some acts viewed as terrorism may be seen as heroic (e.g., French resistance in WWII).

Ethical Considerations

  • A notable quote from The Battle of Algiers raises ethical questions about terrorism versus state violence:
        - “We do not have planes with which to rain munitions on civilians. If you'll give us your planes, we'll hand over our baskets.”
  • This highlights the moral ambiguity of violence in geopolitical contexts.

Great Power Politics Return

Overview

  • A shift towards state competition emerged after the 2008 Global Financial Crisis, moving from terrorism focus to great power dynamics.

Multipolarity Factors

  • The return of multipolarity is attributed to several factors:
        - China's Growth: China emerged as a structural power with the largest economy in nominal GDP adjusted for Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) 2024:
            - China: $37 trillion
            - US: $29 trillion
            - India: $16 trillion
        - China maintains a powerful military and strategically exercises its power regionally.

US Soft Power Decline

  • The US has experienced a decrease in both soft power and agential capacity due to prior military interventions (e.g., Iraq, Afghanistan), affecting global influence.
  • Policies involving drone strikes shifted military operations away from boots on the ground, creating openings for other powers (e.g., Iran, Russia).

Trump Presidency Adjustments

  • Trump's policies further eroded US legitimacy and cooperation with traditional allies, focusing on punitive tariffs and unilateralism.
  • The Biden administration has faced challenges in rallying domestic and international support, evidenced by fluctuating support for Ukraine and other strategic decisions.

The EU and Global Dynamics

  • The European Union represents a significant economic entity (3rd-largest economy at $19.9 trillion GDP PPP), but struggles to exert coherent agency in global affairs due to internal divisions.
  • With dependence on the US and energy vulnerabilities, the EU faces challenges in establishing strategic autonomy.

Conclusion

China’s Global Position

  • China’s rise and assertiveness introduces complexities in US-China relations, raising questions surrounding potential conflicts and the nature of Chinese intentions (revisionist vs. consensual).
  • A historical understanding of China’s past, particularly its ‘Century of Humiliations,’ informs its current foreign policy agenda.
  • Strategic efforts have shifted since Xi Jinping’s leadership towards asserting China as a major power with military modernization and greater regional assertiveness while fostering its global economic profile through initiatives like the Belt and Road Initiative.

US Energy Policies and Interdependence

  • Contrasts emerge in energy policy, with the US transitioning away from multilateral environmental commitments, while China positions itself as a leader in green energy.

Bear in mind that these notes are designed to encapsulate all details from the transcript, preserving every essential concept, definition, and implication discussed throughout the unit on international security.