Human Growth and Development Practice Flashcards
Introduction to Psychosexual and Psychosocial Perspectives
Human growth and development is a foundational pillar of counseling, often framed by the differing perspectives of Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson. Freud’s stages are classified as psychosexual, meaning they emphasize sexuality and the libidinal stages of development. In contrast, Erik Erikson’s eight stages are psychosocial, focusing on social relationships and the evolution of the ego throughout the lifespan. While Freudian theory centers on the oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages, Erikson’s theory extends from infancy through late adulthood, addressing crises such as trust versus mistrust or integrity versus despair.
To understand the broader field of developmental study, several terms are essential. Psychometric refers to the field of mental testing or measurement. Psychodiagnostic pertains to the study of personality through the interpretation of behavior or nonverbal cues. In professional counseling, this often involves using tests or the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders () to label clients within diagnostic categories. Psychopharmacology is the study of how medications or drugs influence psychological functioning. Distinct from these is the work of radical behaviorists, who do not believe in mental constructs such as the mind or consciousness, following the principle that if a phenomenon cannot be measured, it does not exist.
Psychodynamic Constructs: The Id, Ego, and Superego
In Freud’s psychodynamic theory, human behavior is driven largely by unconscious instincts. The id is the primary seat of sex and aggression, often described as the ‘bad boy’ of Freudian theory. It is the ‘pleasure principle’ that houses animalistic instincts. The id is chaotic, void of time orientation, irrational, and illogical; it is concerned only with the body and immediate gratification regardless of consequences. Sigmund Freud emphasized the id, whereas Erik Erikson is considered an ego psychologist. Ego psychologists believe in man’s powers of reasoning to control behavior.
The ego is known as the ‘reality principle’ and is logical, rational, and utilizes reasoning and control to keep the impulses of the id in check. While the id pressures the ego to succumb to pleasure, the ego serves as the control center. The superego represents the moralistic and idealistic portion of the personality. Individuals like Eric Berne, the father of Transactional Analysis, translated these Freudian concepts into everyday language, equating the superego with the ‘Parent’ ego state, which is filled with ‘shoulds, oughts, and musts.’
Cognitive Development: Jean Piaget’s Stages and Concepts
Jean Piaget is the preeminent figure in the study of cognitive development in children. His theory is based on epigenesis, the notion that successfully completing a previous stage is necessary for the stages that follow. Piaget utilized an idiographic approach, which involves the in-depth study of individuals rather than large groups (the latter being a nomothetic approach used in behaviorism or the ). Piaget identified four distinct stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor (birth to years), preoperations ( years), concrete operations ( years), and formal operations ( years and beyond).
In the sensorimotor stage, the child relies on senses and motor skills. A key mastery here is object permanence (also called object constancy), the realization that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight. This typically occurs around months of age. The preoperational stage involves the acquisition of symbolic schema, where a child uses language and symbolism in play—for instance, a milk carton becoming a spaceship. This stage is also marked by egocentrism (the inability to see from another’s perspective) and centration (focusing on one feature of an object while ignoring others). The child’s concept of causality in this stage is often animistic, attributing human traits to inanimate objects.
Concrete operations is the stage where children master conservation and reversibility. Conservation refers to the understanding that a substance’s weight, mass, or volume remains identical even if its shape changes. Piaget and David Elkind noted that mass is understood first, followed by weight, and finally volume. Reversibility is the understanding that an action can be undone, such as water being poured back into its original glass. Formal operations involves the emergence of abstract thinking and the ability to solve problems using multiple hypotheses and deduction. Piaget noted that many individuals never fully reach this final stage, leading to difficulties with complex subjects like algebra or physics.
Moral Development: Lawrence Kohlberg and the Heinz Dilemma
Lawrence Kohlberg is the leading theorist in moral development, expanding on Piaget’s work. Kohlberg identified three levels of morality, each containing two stages. The levels are the preconventional level (premoral), the conventional level (morality of conventional rules and conformity), and the postconventional level (self-accepted moral principles). At the preconventional level (), behavior is guided by consequences, such as punishment or reward. Stage focuses on punishment/obedience, while Stage involves naive hedonism (‘if I’m nice to you, you’ll be nice to me’).
The conventional level () is characterized by a desire to conform to societal expectations. Stage is the ‘good boy/good girl’ orientation, focusing on approval. Stage is the authority, law, and order orientation. The postconventional level () involves self-imposed morals and ethics. Stage involves democratically accepted laws or ‘social contracts,’ and Stage involves universal ethical principles of justice and dignity. Kohlberg found that fewer than of middle-class urban males reached this level, citing individuals like Gandhi or Martin Luther King Jr. as examples.
Kohlberg used the ‘Heinz dilemma’ to assess these stages. In this fictional story, a man named Heinz steals a drug costing (ten times the cost to make) to save his dying wife because he could only raise half the money. Kohlberg evaluated subjects not on their decision (to steal or not), but on the reasoning behind it. Critics of Kohlberg note that his theory may be influenced by age or cultural factors, though he asserted his levels apply universally.
Attachment, Bonding, and Ethological Perspectives
Ethology, often associated with Konrad Lorenz, is the study of animal behavior in their natural environment using Darwinian theory. Lorenz is famous for imprinting, an instinctual behavior where a newborn follows the first moving object it encounters. This highlights ‘critical periods’ in development where behaviors must be learned or they never will be. Lorenz also posited that aggression is an inborn tendency necessary for survival, suggesting competitive sports as a form of catharsis.
In human development, John Bowlby and Harry Harlow are key figures in bonding and attachment. Bowlby insisted that a child must bond with an adult before age to lead a normal social life. Failure to do so leads to ‘object loss,’ which is a precursor to psychopathology. Harlow’s experiments with rhesus monkeys demonstrated that infant monkeys preferred a terry-cloth surrogate mother over a wire surrogate that provided milk, spending an average of hours a day with the cloth mother and only hours with the wire mother. This proved that ‘contact comfort’ is more critical than food for attachment. Other researchers like Ren Spitz identified ‘anaclitic depression’ in infants raised in impersonal institutions, while Margaret Mahler described the child’s initial absolute dependence on the caretaker as ‘symbiosis.’
Lifespan and Adult Development: Erikson, Perry, and Kegan
Erikson was the only psychoanalyst to create a theory encompassing the entire lifespan ( stages). His final stage, integrity versus despair, begins around age , where the individual assesses if their life was worthwhile. Middle age (ages ) is defined by generativity versus stagnation, where generativity involves the ability to be productive and care for the next generation. Daniel Levinson’s research at Yale suggested that of men experience a moderate to severe midlife crisis between ages ( years earlier for women).
William Perry studied adult cognitive development, specifically in college students. He identified dualistic thinking, common in teens, where things are viewed as black or white, right or wrong. As students mature, they enter relativistic thinking, perceiving that truth can exist relative to a specific situation. Robert Kegan developed a ‘constructive model’ of development, suggesting individuals construct their own reality throughout life in six stages: incorporative, impulsive, imperial, interpersonal, institutional, and interindividual. Kegan emphasizes ‘meaning making’ in the face of crisis.
Social, Gender, and Parenting Research
Research on gender differences by Eleanor Maccoby and Carol Jacklin found few biological differences in mathematical ability; however, males tended to outperform females in high school or college, suggesting child-rearing patterns as the likely cause. They did find that girls generally possess better verbal skills, while boys have better visual-perceptual skills and are more aggressive, likely due to biological factors. Adolescents show the highest levels of peer conformity.
Parenting styles significantly impact self-esteem. Stanley Coopersmith found that children with high self-esteem were not punished less but were provided with clear moral boundaries and rules. Their parents were democratic, listening to the child’s arguments and explaining rules. When punished, the focus was on the behavior being ‘bad,’ not the child. Regarding marital satisfaction, it is often highest at the time of the wedding, decreases with parenthood, and improves after children leave the home.
Biological Factors and Clinical Concerns
Developmental psychology involves studying nature (heredity/genetics) versus nurture (environment). Maturationists, such as Arnold Gesell, believe behavior is primarily guided by hereditary factors and that individuals must reach a certain level of neural maturity before behaviors unfold. Genetic conditions discussed include Down syndrome (trisomy , three chromosomes on the st pair) which results in an between and . Other conditions include Phenylketonuria (), Klinefelter’s syndrome (male with extra chromosome, ), Turner’s syndrome (female with no gonads), and sickle cell anemia (affecting primarily African Americans).
Clinical phenomena like fixation occur when development halts due to trauma; the individual becomes ‘stuck’ in a stage. ‘Learned helplessness,’ pioneered by Martin Seligman, describes a pattern where individuals exposed to uncontrollable situations believe they have no environmental control. This was demonstrated using dogs in harnesses receiving electric shocks. Suicide is another major clinical concern, being the th or th leading cause of death in the and a primary killer of teens. Statistics show males commit suicide more often ( overall rate), while females attempt it more frequently. Counselors are warned that suicide attempts often occur after a depressive episode begins to lift.
Professional Practice and Maslow’s Hierarchy
Elementary school counseling gained momentum in the s. It was slow to develop because of the belief that teachers could double as counselors and that counseling was strictly vocational. Today, it is recognized as a preventive and developmental field. School counselors in the number over . Dialectical Behavior Therapy (), created by Marsha M. Linehan, is useful for suicide prevention and mindfulness.
Abraham Maslow, a humanistic (‘third force’) psychologist, established a hierarchy of needs: survival, security/safety, love/belonging, self-esteem, and self-actualization. He believed higher-order ‘metaneeds’ could only be addressed once lower-order physiological and safety needs were met. Maslow researched self-actualization by studying the ‘best people’ rather than the average, avoiding what he called the ‘psychopathology of the average.’ Nosology, the branch of medicine concerning the classification of disease, is utilized by counselors through the to ensure standardized assessment across practitioners.