Exam Notes: Iran

Iran

1. Key Features

  • Theocratic State: Iran is ruled by religious leaders, deriving its legitimacy from tradition and religion.
  • Unitary State: Similar to China, power is centralized.
  • Authoritarianism: Like China, Iran exhibits authoritarian characteristics.
  • Dual Rule System:
    • Clerics (religious leaders) hold the most power.
    • Elected officials have limited policy-making authority.
  • Unicameral Legislature: Iran has a single legislative chamber.
  • Major Cleavage: The primary political division is between reformists and conservatives.
  • Rentier State: Iran's economy is heavily reliant on resource rents, primarily from oil.
  • Clientelism:
    • Historically rooted in Ancient Persia.
    • Involves political groups providing benefits in exchange for political support.
  • Imperialism in the 19th Century:
    • Russia and Great Britain exerted influence over Persia after the discovery of oil.
    • Persia was never formally colonized but became economically dependent.
    • Key resources were provided in exchange for military support.
    • This weakened Persian sovereignty and reduced its territory.
  • Brain Drain:
    • Migration due to globalization, political instability, and limited opportunities.
  • Judicial Review:
    • Exists but is weak due to the dominance of theocracy and Sharia Law.
    • Sharia Law: Legal code derived from Islamic scriptures (Quran and Hadith).
  • Jurist’s Guardianship (Velayat-e Faqih):
    • Developed by Khomeini.
    • Faquih (Islamic jurist) rules on behalf of the hidden Imam.
    • Shiites believe Imam Mahdi is hidden and will reappear to bring justice.
    • Clerical rule ensures the government adheres to Islamic values.
  • Issues:
    • Inflation
    • Women’s rights
    • Economic sanctions from Western powers (due to nuclear program concerns and human rights violations).
    • Voter turnout
    • Corruption
    • Limited civil society
    • Drug trafficking (bordering Afghanistan, a major opium producer; Iran is a major opium consumer).
  • Provinces:
    • 31 provinces with limited power, despite constitutional provisions.
    • Each has a capital city, usually the largest in the area.
  • Economic Dissatisfaction: A 2019 poll indicated that 73% of Iranians viewed the economy as bad.
  • Political Parties:
    • Many parties exist, often centered around individuals.
    • Parties are generally weak.
  • Rule of Law & Political Efficacy: Both are weak.
  • Media Restrictions: Media and press are restricted.
  • Social Media Usage: Approximately 45 million Iranians have social media accounts.
  • Women's Status: Opportunities have improved marginally but remain restricted.
  • Economic Growth: Current economy shows signs of growth but faces challenges.
  • Key Leadership:
    • Supreme Leader: Head of State (HOS), holds the most power.
    • President: Head of Government (HOG).

2. Key People

  • Reza Shah Pahlavi (1925-1941):
    • First Shah of Iran (renamed in 1935) and founder of the Pahlavi dynasty.
    • Father of Mohammed Reza Pahlavi.
    • Increased the central army, expanded bureaucracy, and consolidated control.
    • Expanded Iran's economy, agriculture, and infrastructure but became increasingly authoritarian.
    • Abdicated the throne due to pressure from Allied powers (British and Soviet forces) during WWII due to pro-German sympathies and lived in exile.
  • Mohammed Reza Pahlavi (1941-1979):
    • Son of Reza Shah Pahlavi, succeeded him after his abdication.
    • Maintained friendly relations with Western powers.
    • Launched social/political reforms and modernization, including support for higher education.
    • Policies favored larger enterprises, foreign investors over domestic, and urban interests over rural.
    • HDIHDI increased, as did GINIGINI coefficient, indicating rising inequality.
    • Bazaari:
      • Migration of rural workers threatened traditional traders in Iran’s Bazaars (markets).
      • Sales opportunities decreased for Bazaaris.
    • Secularity:
      • Reduced the role of Islamic law, leading to opposition in the theocratic state.
      • SAVAK: State secret police that violated human rights through torture and executions.
      • SAVAK was the most feared arm of his increasingly authoritarian regime.
    • Due to opposition, he changed his PM but it wasn't enough. He went into “temporary” exile and never returned, ending his regime.
  • Mohammed Mosaddegh (1951-1953):
    • Former prime minister who sought to nationalize the oil industry.
    • Ousted in a coup backed by the U.S. and U.K.
    • The U.S. and Soviet Union were competing to spread their ideologies during the Cold War, and nationalizing the oil industry was seen favoring communism.
    • The U.S. also sought to maintain control of oil resources.
    • After his overthrow, the U.S. provided Iran with substantial aid, strengthening Iran’s military in the Middle East.
  • Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini (1979-1989):
    • Former and first Supreme Leader of Iran; Islamic revolutionary, charismatic.
    • Major opposition leader to Mohammed Reza Shah.
    • Opposed westernization, secularism, economic disparities, and authoritarian rule.
    • Jailed in 1963, exiled to Iraq/France in 1964.
    • In January 1978, the government published an article attacking him, leading to widespread protests.
    • After the Shah's PM was removed, he appointed his own PM.
    • The 1979 Revolution of Iran occurred when Khomeini and his supporters invaded prisons, police stations, military bases, etc.
    • Many were killed over two days, and Khomeini established the modern Islamic Republic of Iran.
    • After the revolution, he called for an early referendum on the new republic.
    • Adopted a new constitution in 1979 based on Jurist's Guardianship (Velayat-e Faqih).
  • Mahmoud Ahmadinejad:
    • Former president.
    • In 2009, his reelection was controversial; his poor performance in a TV debate was followed by results showing him winning 62% of the vote, widely seen as fraudulent.
    • This angered the second candidate, Mir-Hossein Mousavi, and his supporters.
  • Mir Houssein Mousavi:
    • Ahmadinejad's opponent in the 2009 election.
    • Led the 2009 Green Movement (protests against the fraudulent election).
    • Called his supporters to protest, leading to over a million marching through Tehran streets within a day.
    • Twitter & Facebook were used for communication.
    • The largest demonstration after the 1979 revolution.
  • Hassan Rouhani: Former president, a reformist.
  • Ebrahim Raisi: Current president.
  • Ali Khamenei: Current Supreme Leader, has a Facebook account.

3. Key Groups/Government Positions

  • Guardian Council:
    • Religious institution.
    • In 2017, declared non-Muslims could not run for office in regions with Muslim majorities.
    • Can veto laws passed by Majles (parliament).
    • Makes elections unfair by banning thousands of candidates (Majles and presidential).
    • The most influential body in Iran.
  • Majles:
    • Iran’s parliament.
    • One of the three secular parts of Iran’s government.
    • Passed a law in 2018 giving religious minorities the right to be candidates for local offices.
  • Expediency Council:
    • Secular body.
    • Moderates disputes between the Guardian Council (religious) and Majles (secular).
  • President:
    • Secular position.
    • Can veto legislation (Majles can override).
    • Implements government policies, grants pardons, etc.
  • Jaish-Ul-Adl (JUA):
    • The Army of Justice.
    • Baluchi Sunni Islamist separatist organization.
    • Listed as a terrorist group by the U.S. due to tactics, including kidnap, assassination, car bombs, and landmines.
    • Their goal is to preserve Islamic principles and values in society.
    • Javid Dehghan was accused of being a JUA leader and convicted of killing 2 members of the elite Military force.
    • Amnesty International claims he was tortured for confessions, and the U.N. human rights office requested a review of the trial, but the Iranian government executed him.
  • Revolutionary Guards:
    • A powerful military/paramilitary force.
    • Defends the Iranian regime, separate from Iran’s conventional military.
    • A large economic force in Iran.
  • Basij:
    • A paramilitary volunteer militia force established during the Iran-Iraq war of the 1980s.
    • Part of the Revolutionary Guards.
    • Act as morality police, enforcing hijab usage, etc.
  • Bonyads:
    • “Charity” organizations.
    • Originally established for charitable services but grew powerful and influence various sectors, including manufacturing, finance, and real estate.
    • Criticized for their lack of transparency and accountability in operations.
    • Not as large of an economic force as the Revolutionary Guards.
  • Ministry of Intelligence: Intelligence agency monitors Sunnis with local militias.
  • Ministry of Education: Oversees education systems, considers attempts to convert Shiite Muslims to other religions a criminal offense.
  • Baháʼí: A minority religion in Iran.

4. Elections/Appointment Process

  • Iran allows limited but competitive elections.
  • Majles (Secular, Elected):
    • 290 members, elected through a mix of SMD and Multimember District (MMD).
    • Multimember District (MMD):
      • A system where more than one representative is elected from a district.
      • Citizens can vote for as many candidates as seats available (e.g., 30 seats = 30 votes).
      • Iran is the only country besides Mexico (mixed system) to use this in AP Comparative Government.
      • It’s a plurality system.
    • Candidates winning 25% of votes are awarded a seat.
    • Runoff elections occur within MMD for remaining seats between the top two candidates.
    • Religious minorities are guaranteed some representation.
    • Elections are held every 4 years but have never been entirely fair due to the Guardian Council.
  • President (Secular, Elected):
    • Two-round system (runoff).
    • If one wins a majority of votes in the first round, they are declared the winner.
    • This is used to put a mandate (broad support) on the candidate to carry out proposed policies.
    • 4-year term, 2 consecutive terms allowed.
  • Cabinet (Secular):
    • Appointed by the president, approved by Majles.
    • Can be dismissed by the president, no fixed term limit.
  • Assembly of Experts (Religious, Elected):
    • Also mixes SMD & MMD.
    • 8-year terms.
  • Supreme Leader (Religious):
    • Appointed by the Assembly of Experts clerics; can also be removed by them.
    • Serves lifetime, unless removed by the Assembly of Experts.
  • Guardian Council (Religious):
    • Appointed by the Supreme Leader.
    • Phased 6-year terms; half the membership changes every three years.
  • Expediency Council (Secular):
    • Appointed by the Supreme Leader.
    • Renewable 5-year term.
  • Armed Forces:
    • Appointed by the Supreme Leader.
    • Term limit varies.
  • Head of Judiciary:
    • Appointed by the Supreme Leader.
    • 5-year terms, renewed once. 5 year terms, renewed once. ("5 year terms, renewed once")("5 \text{ year terms, renewed once}")