Psychological Studies

Milgram’s Obedience Study (1962)

Research Question - Will people follow orders from an authority figure even if the behavior goes against their conscience?

Participants - 40 male volunteers from the ages of 20-50.

Procedure - Tell the participant to “shock” the learner with increasing voltage for incorrect answers.

Results - 65% of participants go all the way to 450 volts.

Burger Obedience Study Replication (2006)

Research Question - Will people follow orders from an authority figure even if the behavior goes against their conscience? (Same as Milgram’s original study)

Participants - 70 male and female adults who were screened before the experiment. Volunteers were told three times that they could leave the experiment at any point in time.

Procedure - Told participants to “shock” the learner with increasing voltage for incorrect answers, like in Milgram’s original study, but didn’t let participants go past 150v. Immediate debrief after the experiment, and the “experimenter” was a trained clinical psychologist who would intervene if necessary.

Results - 70% continued at 150v. There was no difference between male and female participants.

Zimbardo Stanford Prison Experiment (1971)

Research Question - What are the psychological effects of a prison?

Participants - 24 male college-aged students, who were screened to ensure that they were average.

Procedure - Students were randomly assigned to the prisoner or guard role. Guards were told they had complete authority and to keep prisoners in line, while prisoners were stripped of their individual identities. Zimbardo and his staff of researchers would record behavior.

Results - Some guards became sadistic, while prisoners acted withdrawn and distressed. The study was called off after 6 days because all participants were absorbed in their roles including Zimbardo.

Phineas Gage Case Study (1848)

Research Question - What happened to Phineas Gage?

Participant - Phineas Gage was a railroad operator who was struck in the head by an iron bar. He survived but his personality was reportedly altered.

Results - After death, the Gage family donated Phineas’ skull to the museum. Studies show damage to the frontal lobe. Studies suggest a link between the frontal lobe and personality.

“Tan“ Case Study (1861)

Research Question - What happened to “Tan“?

Participant - Male epileptic suffering from aphasia (inability to speak), instead only responding with one syllable “Tan”.

Results - Dr. Brocca conducted an autopsy after his death and found damage to a specific area in the left hemisphere of “Tan’s” frontal lobe. Suggests that damage in Brocca’s area makes it difficult to produce speech.

Merzenich Owl Monkey Study (1984)

Research Question - Can the brain change?

Participants - 8 adult owl monkeys.

Procedure - Researchers mapped the sensory input from the monkeys’ fingers on the cortex. Amputate the monkey’s middle finger. Remap cortex 62 days later.

Results - The cortical area responsible for the middle finger (finger #3) was now occupied by fingers #2 and #4.

Maguire et al Taxicab Study (2000)

Research Question - Are taxi drivers’ brains different than other people’s?

Participants - 16 male right-handed London taxi drivers (been a driver for at least 1 and a half years).

Procedure - Compare MRI scans of taxi drivers and control participants.

Results - Larger posterior hippocampus in taxi drivers compared to control. Greater number of years as a driver correlated with a larger posterior hippocampus.

Auyeung et al Testosterone Study (2010)

Research Question - Does fetal testosterone impact the likelihood of demonstrating autistic traits?

Participants - 129 typically developing toddlers aged between 18 and 24 months.

Procedure - Levels of fetal testosterone was measured using the amniotic fluid from the mother, and later compared with autistic traits of toddlers.

Results - Behaviors were observed with Quantitative Checklist for Autism in Toddlers, with boys scoring significantly higher, indicating more autistic traits, compared to girls. In addition, there was a significant positive relationship between fetal testosterone levels and autistic traits.

David Reimer Case Study (1965 - 04)

Research Question - Can gender be completely influenced by nurture?

Participant - Bruce Reimer was born biologically male in 1965, with an identical twin. Both boys went to get circumcised, but Bruce’s circumcision was botched. His parents decided to raise Bruce, as a girl “Brenda”, and manipulated the environment to ensure “Brenda” was essentially raised as a girl.

Results - “Brenda” feels ostracized and is described as a tomboy. Psychologist John Money follows up with the twins yearly, attempting to prove Money’s Gender Neutrality Theory. “Brenda” contemplates suicide. Later, his parents tell him what happened, and afterwards identified as David.

Heylens et al Gender Dysphoria Twin Study (2011)

Aim - To review the current literature on case studies of twins with gender dysphoria

Participants - 51 sets of twins with at least one having gender dysphoria.

Procedure - Psychologists compared this data to produce concordance rates for gender dysphoria. This study is similar to a meta analysis.

Results - The concordance rate for gender dysphoria for monozygotic twins is 39% (9/23), while in dizygotic twins it is 0% (0/28). This indicates that there is a genetic influence on gender dysphoria.

Theisen et al Genetic Sequencing of Transgender Individuals (2019)

Research Question - Is there a genetic component of gender dysphoria?

Participants - 13 transgender males and 17 transgender females, who received a diagnosis of gender dysphoria and self identified as transgender.

Procedure - Participants had their entire exome sequenced, which scientists then compared to controls to find variants.

Results - Researchers found 21 variants in 19 genes which are associated with estrogen receptors. This indicates that gender dysphoria has a genetic component, and that it could be polygenic.

Martin and Halvorson Gender Enculturation Study (1983)

Research Question - Is there a difference on how children remember images based on gender?

Participants - Children of both genders between the ages five to six.

Procedure - Researchers showed children images that either matched or did not match their gender identity. For example a girl with a gun, versus a girl with a doll. Children a week later were asked what they remember from the images.

Results - Children remembered more details and demonstrated less distortion of memory when images matched their gender schema. This suggests children are actively seeking out information to confirm and develop their gender schema.

\ \ \ \ \

Huesmann TV Violence Study (1977 - 92)

Research Question - How does childhood viewing habits impact a person’s aggression it the future?

Participants - Longitudinal Study of 577 children all 6 to 10 years old in Chicago area.

Procedure - Surveyed subjects and parents about their children’s hours of violent TV watched, identification with aggressive TV characters, judgements of realism, aggressive behaviors of the child, IQ, SES, and parents’ amount of violent TV. Follow up at 20-25 years old and collected more data on TV violence viewing, reported aggressive behavior, and criminal convictions.

Results - High childhood violent TV viewing is positively correlated with aggressive adult behavior, in both men and women. More aggressive as an adult if higher self identification with violent characters and higher judgement of realism as a child.

Boyatzis Power Rangers Study (1995)

Research Question - Does watching violent TV impact aggressive behaviors in children?

Participants - 26 boys and 26 girls from an afterschool program at a public school in California ages 5 to 11.

Procedure - Randomly assigned to power rangers group (where they watch one episode) or control group (where they don’t watch). Researchers then observe the number of aggressive acts the children display during the hour of free play right after.

Results - Children who were in the power rangers group displayed seven times more aggressive acts (htting, kicking, shoving, flying kick, etc.).

Bandura Bobo Doll Study (1961)

Research Question - How does watching violent behavior impact a child’s violent behaviors?

Participants - 72 Children (36 boys and 36 girls) who are all between the ages of 3 and 6.

Procedure - Children are split up into three groups: Aggressive adult model, Non Aggressive adult model, no adult model. Based on the group the child is in, an adult will either engage in aggressive play with a bobo doll, engage in non aggressive play, or there will be no adult model. Afterwards, the children are put in a room with a bobo doll. Their nursery school teachers then compare their level of aggressiveness before and after the experiment.

Results - Children exposed to more aggressive models, would engage in more aggressive behaviors themselves. Boys were more likely to exhibit physical aggression while girls were more likely to exhibit verbal aggression. Boys were also more aggressive in all groups, despite the model shown.

Batson Altruism Study (1981)

Research Question - How does empathy impact altruistic behaviors?

Participants - 44 female introductory psychology students at the University of Kansas.

4 Groups/Conditions (Uses 2x2 design with an escape paradigm)

High empathy, Easy escape
High empathy, Hard escape
Low empathy, Easy escape
Low empathy, Hard escape

Procedure - Participants told that study is about aversive work conditions. Worker, “Elaine”, does memory tasks with mild occasional electric shocks to simulate aversive work conditions. Observer rates perception of the impact on worker. Participant watches worker (confederate “Elaine”) on a tv monitor doing the tasks and receiving shocks. After 2 (of 10) trials, participant is given the choice to complete the remaining trials for “Elaine”.

Results - Participants were more likely to help if they had high empathy with “Elaine”. Participants know if it is an easy or difficult escape. Low empathy, hard escape groups can be considered egoistic helping (negative-state relief model).

High empathy, Easy escape (91%)
High empathy, Hard escape (82%)
Low empathy, Easy escape (18%)
Low empathy, Hard escape (65%)

Levine et al Cross Cultural Helping Study (2001)

Research Question - What cultural factors impact how helpful a city is?

Participants - 23 cities around the world.

Procedure - Three specific helping measures were studied in each city:

Doing what one can; direct help versus giving what one has, indirect help
Spontaneous, informal help versus planned, formal help
Serious versus non series help

Each of these three criteria were tested through:

Dropped Pen - Experimenter drops a pen in front of a participant, and sees if the participant helps retrieve the pen.
Hurt Leg - Person with a visible leg brace dropped a stack of magazines and had trouble picking them up in front of a participant. Experimenter sees if the participant helps pick up the magazines.
Helping a Blind Person Across the Street - Experimenters, disguised as blind people. Experimenters see if participants tell the blind person when they can cross the street.

Results - The higher a countries PPP, the less likely they are to help.

Darley & Latane Smoke Study (1968)

Research Question - How do groups of people react to emergencies?

Participants - Male students from Columbia University

Procedure - Participants were directed to a waiting area for the experiment to begin and were asked to fill out a questionnaire. Suddenly the room would fill with smoke, and participants were observed for their reaction.

Results - Participants in the room alone were the most likely to respond to the smoke filling the room. Participants with confederates who ignored the smoke, were much more likely to also ignore the smoke. As long as one confederate noticed the smoke, the participant was more likely to react.

Darley & Latane Seizure Study (1968)

Research Question - How does the number of people present impact the response to an emergency?

Participants - Undergraduate students at NYU

Procedure - Participants were told they would be asked questions over an intercom about student life, to ensure confidentiality. At a certain point in the conversation, a confederate would fake a seizure over the intercom so the participants could hear it. Participants chose whether to ask for help or do nothing.

Results - People were less likely to respond, or ask for help, the more people were on the intercom.

Iowa State University Effects of Prosocial Media (2013)

Research Question - Does watching prosocial media impact empathy and prosocial behaviors?

Participants - 2,000 teenagers/young adults from Australia, China, Croatia, Germany, Japan, Romania and the United States. (Diverse cross-cultural study)

Procedure - Participants given a media habits questionnaire, empathy questionnaire, and prosocial behavior questionnaire.

Results - Greater exposure to prosocial media is positively correlated with higher empathy and prosocial scores.

Loftus Lost in the Mall Study (1996)

Research Question - Can memories be implanted?

Participants - 24 individuals, male and female aged 18-53 years old.

Procedure - Have participant read 4 stories about childhood (3 true and 1 false). Participant is told all stories are true. False memory is being lost at the mall at age 5. Ask subjects to write down details about the memories.

Results - 25% recalled details about the false memories.

Loftus & Palmer Car Crash Study (1974)

Research Question - How does post-event information influence a participants memory of an event?

Participants - 45 college students.

Procedure - Participants watch video of car crash. Participants asked to estimate the speed of the car after watching. Question worded differently for each group (bumped, hit, smashed, etc.)

Results - Participants who read smash estimated a higher mph, while participants with the word collided had a lower estimate. A week later, participants were asked if there was broken glass at the accident. The more aggressive verb groups were more likely to say there was broken glass, when in reality there was none.

Loftus Strawberry Ice Cream Study (2013)

Research Question - Does watching prosocial media impact empathy and prosocial behaviors?

Participants - 131 UC Irvine students

Procedure - Students were asked to take a questionnaire about food, specifically strawberry ice cream. The results of the questionnaire would falsely state that they had a bad experience with strawberry ice cream.

Results - Almost 20% later agreed on a questionnaire that they had, in fact, been sickened by the treat and that they intended to avoid it in the future. In a follow up students were asked to detail the imaginary ice cream episode. In that case, 41% of those given erroneous information later believed the tale and said they intended to avoid it.

Bartlett War of the Ghosts Study (1932)

Research Question - How do cultural schemas impact recall?

Participants - People who were members of cultural groups that were not native american.

Procedure - Bartlett would read a Navajo Indian folk story. Participants would either write down what they remember and pass it on to the next person who would repeat the process (serial reproduction), or would read and write down the story from memory with time gaps between 15 minutes to several years (repeated reproduction).

Results - Bartlett found both types of reproduction produced a progressively shorter and more coherent story in terms of a reader’s cultural background.

Sharot & Phelps 9/11 Study (2006)

Research Question - How does proximity impact flashbulb memories?

Participants - 24 people who were in Manhattan on 9/11 (within 5 miles of the Twin Towers)

Procedure - Participants had fMRI scans while their recalling a memory of a vacation they took that summer, and their 9/11 experience.

Results - More details recalled and more amygdala activation when recalling 9/11 compared to summer memory, but only for the participants within 2.5 miles.

Talarico & Rubin 9/11 Study (2003)

Research Question - Are flashbulb memories reliable?

Participants - 54 Duke undergraduate students

Procedure - On 9/12/01, participants were asked to record their memory of 9/11 and one other ordinary memory within the last couple of days. Researchers followed up one week, six weeks, or 32 weeks later and asked participants what they remember about 9/11 and their ordinary memory.

Results - 9/11 memory more emotionally intense description. 9/11 memory higher rated confidence in accuracy. However, the number of errors in recall were the same for both memories.

HM Case Study (1965 - 04)

Research Question - How does the removal of the hippocampus affect memory?

Participant - HM was a patient who suffered from severe epilepsy. Doctors removed most of his hippocampus to prevent seizures.

Results - Receives anterograde amnesia. Could not remember events that happened after the surgery. Also couldn’t remember things that happened within several years before the surgery (partial retrograde). He could, however, learn new skills (could acquire implicit memories). Normal performance on tasks like crossword puzzles and intelligence tests.

Clive Wearing Case Study (1965 - 04)

Research Question - How did Clive Wearing’s disease change his memory?

Participant - Virus attacked Clive Wearing’s central nervous system and damaged his hippocampus.

Results - Only has a memory span of 7-30 seconds (only has short-term memory). Can’t make new memories (anterograde), and has no memories from his past life (retrograde). Still remembers his wife and his children (but doesn’t always remember their names). Can still play the piano.

Glanzer and Cunitz Serial Position Study (1966)

Research Question - How do distractor tasks impact the recall of a list of words?

Participants - 240 army enlisted males separated into two groups.

Procedure - Group 1: Participants listen to recording of 20 words (one syllable nouns) then immediate recall (no distractor task). Group 2: Listen to the same recording of 20 words, then do a distractor task, then recall.

Results - Group 1 participants were better at remembering words at the start and end of the list (serial position effect). Group 2 participants were only better at remembering words at the start of the list (primacy effect).

Tajfel Social Identity Study (1971)

Research Question - Can discrimination be created within a group of people without any previous applicable prejudices?

Participants - This study included 64 boys all between the ages of 14 and 15 years old, from a school in the United Kingdom.

Procedure - Students were sorted into different groups depending on minimal characteristics. This means the students were assigned to groups based on arbitrary and minimal criteria. Students anonymously on a sheet of paper, allocated rewards and punishments to other members of the entire group, without knowing their identities. The only information that the students had access to was what group they were a member of.

Results - When students were forced to make an intergroup choice (ingroup vs outgroup) they were more likely to favor their ingroup. When students were forced to make an intragroup choice (ingroup vs ingroup, or outgroup vs outgroup) students opted for the decision that was the most fair.

Phelps et al Amygdala Study (2000)

Research Question - Is there biological evidence for implicit bias?

Participants - White people

Procedure - Participants take the IAT, and afterwards researchers use fMRI scans to study what parts of the brain light up when looking at a face of the opposite race.

Results - Regardless of education level 87% of white people show implicit bias against African Americans (according to the IAT). In addition, participants with a higher level of amygdala activation when looking at African American faces were more likely to show higher levels of implicit bias against African Americans.

Cuddy et al Cultural Values & Gender Stereotypes Study (2015)

Research Question - Can cultural frameworks be primed by language?

Participants - 60 Rutgers students who are Korean American

Procedure - Participants were told to fill out a survey, which asked which gender is more collectivist and individualistic. For half the participants, the survey was written in Korean, for the other half, it was written in english.

Results - Bicultural Korean Americans primed with a Korean frame perceived men as more collectivistic than women, whereas bicultural Korean Americans primed with an American cultural frame perceived women as more collectivistic than men.

Rosenthal and Jacobson Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Study (1968)

Research Question - How does self-fulfilling prophecies impact behavior?

Participants - Teachers in an elementary school

Procedure - Students were randomly assigned to be academic bloomers or growth spurters, without the knowledge of the teacher, based on the results of a supposed test.

Results - Students who were labeled as academic bloomers demonstrated an increase in IQ. The teacher’s interactions with the student modeled what they expected the student to demonstrate. Academic bloomers also received more support on assignments and more detailed feedback.

Steele and Aronson Stereotype Threat Study (1995)

Research Question - How does stereotype threat impact the test performance of African American students?

Participants - African american students

Procedure - Researchers administered a 30 minute test with items taken from the GRE. The test was of sufficient difficulty to challenge the participants. Each test taker was put into one of the three random conditions:

Condition 1 (Stereotype Threat/Diagnostic Condition) - Test was described as being a measure of intellectual ability. This in theory would cause the negative racial stereotype to become relevant to the black participants and establish stereotype threat.
Condition 2 (Non-stereotype Threat) - Test was simply described as a problem solving task unrelated to intellectual ability. No stereotype threat established.
Condition 3 (Challenge Condition) - Test was described as difficult, in the hope the participants would feel more motivated to complete the task.

Results - Black students in the diagnostic condition performed significantly worse than black participants in either of the two non-diagnostic conditions, as well as significantly worse than white participants in the diagnostic condition.

Robbers Cave Study (1954)

Research Question - Can conflict be created and mitigated?

Participants - 24 white boys

Procedure - At first, the participants socialized and made relationships with the people around them. They were then separated into two separate groups, to ensure they were separated from their friends. Researchers then started competitions between the two groups to see how conflict arises. Next, the researchers attempted to mitigate conflict by forcing them to cooperate.

Results - Researchers were successfully able to manipulate the boys by creating and limiting conflict. When competing, the boys were rude and demonstrated ingroup bias (negative interdependence). When the boys were cooperative, they showed positive interdependence.

Clarke and Hatfield FSU Study (1978 & 82)

Research Question - Does gender impact immediate attraction?

Participants - A total of 96 subjects -- 48 men and 48 women -- were propositioned, partitioned to 16 men and 16 women for each question

Procedure - Five college-aged women and four college-aged men took turns standing at one of five quadrangles on the Florida State campus on a weekday. There, they'd wait until they spotted a member of the opposite sex, who -- in their judgment -- was attractive. They'd approach their target, and in a cool, calm voice state, "I've been noticing you around campus. I find you very attractive." The experimenter would then ask one of three randomly assigned questions: "Would you go out with me tonight?" "Would you come over to my apartment tonight?" or "Would you go to bed with me tonight?

Results - None of the women agreed to go to bed with their male askers, and only one agreed to visit a male experimenter's apartment. On the other hand, roughly three-quarters of propositioned males were happy to oblige such titillating proposals.

Buss Cross Cultural Study (1989)

Research Question - Is attraction dependent on culture?

Participants - Men and women around the world from many different countries and cultures.

Procedure - Participants were asked to fill out a survey asking questions about ideal mate selection. In addition, the participants were asked to rank 13 factors affecting mate choice in order of importance.

Results - In 97% of the cultures surveyed, the importance placed by women on finance was significantly more important than that given by men. In 92% of the cultures surveyed, women placed more emphasis on ambition and industriousness than men. In addition, women in all cultures preferred a man that was older than they were. By contrast, men all wanted younger women. Men also ranked physical attractiveness as more important compared to women.

Marazziti Serotonin Study (1999)

Research Question - What does serotonin levels tell us about relationships?

Participants - 60 individuals - 20 were men and women who had fallen in love in the last 6 months; 20 others had suffered from obsessive-compulsive disorder; and the other 20 were healthy individuals who were not in love (control group)

Procedure - Blood test, analyzing the participants level of serotonin.

Results - Low serotonin levels in new lovers was the same as those with obsessive-compulsive disorder, which established a possible connection between romantic love and low levels of serotonin in the blood.

Schneiderman et al. Oxytocin Study (2012)

Research Question - What does oxytocin levels tell us about relationships?

Participants - 163 individuals, consisting of 120 new lovers (60 couples) and 43 single people.

Procedure - Blood plasma was tested for oxytocin levels.

Results - Oxytocin levels for coupled individuals was higher than for those who were single. The amount of oxytocin was also sustained throughout the duration of the study. Suggests that oxytocin may play an important role in the primary stages of a relationship.

Byrne Similarity Study (1965)

Research Question - Does similarity impact attraction?

Participants - 150 people

Procedure - Participants read a questionnaire completed by a supposed other participant (in reality it was fake). Researchers would manipulate the details in the questionnaire, pretending to be another participant. Afterwards, they rate their attraction towards the other participant.

Results - Researchers discovered that the proportion of shared traits was more important than the number of shared traits, when it comes to attraction. (For example, a person who shares 3/10 traits is more attractive than someone with 30/300 traits)

Gupta and Singh Arranged vs. Love Marriages in India (1982)

Research Question - How does marital satisfaction differ in love and arranged marriages?

Participants - 50 Indian couples, half of whom had arranged marriages while the other half had married for love. The couples had been married for varying lengths of time; some had been married for a year or less, others had been together for as long as twenty years

Procedure - The couples were interviewed separately and asked to respond to questions on the Rubin Love Scale, developed by psychologist Zick Rubin. Subjects were asked to respond to statements such as “I like it when my (husband / wife) confides in me” or “I would do almost anything for my (husband/wife).”

Results - The couples who had married for love and had been married for less than one year had an average score of 70 points out of a possible 90 (higher scores indicate stronger feelings of love). However, couples who married for love and had been married for 10 years or longer only had an average score of 40, a steep decline. The corresponding numbers for those who were in an arranged marriage were 58 points (for those married less than a year) and 68 points (for those who had been married for a decade or more).

Williams and Jacobson Pheromone Study (2016)

Research Question - Do pheremones impact attraction?

Participants -100 heterosexual men.

Procedure - Participants divided into control and copulin group. All participants forced to wear a face mask, for the experimental group, copulins were placed in the mask. Researchers showed the participants pictures of women without makeup. Ratings of attractiveness, mate guarding, and self perceived desirability were recorded.

Results - No statistically significant difference between both groups with ratings of attractiveness and mate guarding. Those in the copulin group were statistically significant to perceive themselves as more attractive.

Collins and Miller Meta-Analysis (1994)

Research Question - What trends emerge when studying self-disclosure?

Participants - Studies spanning the subject of self-disclosure.

Results - People who disclosed more information were more liked. People disclose more information to people that they did like. People tend to like those to whom they have disclosed.

Aron 36 Questions (1997)

Research Question - Can the process of getting to know someone be accelerated?

Participants - 100 psychology undergraduate students at SUNY Stony Brook.

Procedure - Participants paired up and separated into two groups. One group is given shallow, surface level questions (small talk). The other group is given close, deeper, questions. Participants have a conversation for 45 minutes throughout three sections of questions. As time goes on, the questions on the close list got deeper. Afterwards, participants took a questionnaire to test how close they felt to their partner.

Results - Participants that had the close questions list felt closer to their partner.