Honors Anatomy and Physiology Final Exam Study Guide Notes

Skeletal System

  • Bone Shapes and Examples:

    • Long bones: Femur
    • Short bones: Carpals
    • Flat bones: Sternum
    • Irregular bones: Vertebrae
    • Sesamoid bones: Patella

  • Bone Cells and Functions:

    • Osteoblasts: Bone formation
    • Osteocytes: Maintain bone tissue
    • Osteoclasts: Bone resorption

  • Scientific Names of Bones:

    • Collar bone: Clavicle
    • Shoulder blade: Scapula
    • Lower jawbone: Mandible
    • Cheek bone: Zygomatic bone
    • Thigh bone: Femur
    • Shin bone: Tibia

  • Vertebral Divisions:

    • Cervical: 7 bones
    • Thoracic: 12 bones
    • Lumbar: 5 bones

  • Functions of the Skeletal System:

    • Support
    • Protection
    • Movement
    • Mineral storage
    • Blood cell formation (hematopoiesis)

  • Types of Joints:

    • Fibrous (Synarthroses)
    • Cartilaginous (Amphiarthroses)
    • Synovial (Diarthroses): Most common

  • Axial Skeletal System:

    • Skull
    • Vertebral column
    • Rib cage

  • Appendicular Skeletal System:

    • Limbs (upper and lower)
    • Pectoral girdle (scapula and clavicle)
    • Pelvic girdle (hip bones)

  • Bone Structure:

    • Epiphysis: Ends of long bones, contains spongy bone
    • Diaphysis: Shaft of long bones, contains compact bone

  • Joint Types and Locations:

    • Saddle joint: Thumb (carpometacarpal joint)
    • Gliding joint: Intercarpal and intertarsal joints
    • Ball and socket: Hip and shoulder
    • Hinge: Elbow and knee
    • Condyloid: Wrist (radiocarpal joint)

Muscular System

  • Muscle Types and Locations:

    • Skeletal: Attached to bones
    • Smooth: Walls of internal organs
    • Cardiac: Heart

  • Voluntary Muscle:

    • Skeletal

  • Striations:

    • Skeletal and cardiac muscle
    • Function: Muscle contraction

  • Myofilaments:

    • Actin
    • Myosin

  • Contractile Unit:

    • Sarcomere

  • Connective Tissue:

    • Endomysium: Surrounds individual muscle fibers
    • Epimysium: Surrounds entire muscle
    • Perimysium: Surrounds fascicles (bundles of muscle fibers)

  • Tendons and Ligaments:

    • Tendon: Connects muscle to bone
    • Ligament: Connects bone to bone

  • Muscle Functions:

    • Biceps brachii: Flexes elbow
    • Triceps brachii: Extends elbow
    • Rectus femoris (Quad): Extends knee
    • Rectus abdominus: Flexes vertebral column
    • Orbicularis oris: Closes and protrudes lips
    • Orbicularis oculi: Closes eyelids
    • Pectoralis major: Adducts and flexes arm
    • Deltoid: Abducts arm
    • Biceps femoris (hamstrings): Flexes knee and extends hip
    • Buccinator: Compresses cheek

Digestive System

  • Functions of the Digestive System:

    • Ingestion
    • Digestion
    • Absorption
    • Elimination

  • Water Absorption:

    • Yes, primarily in the large intestine

  • Mechanical and Chemical Digestion:

    • Mechanical: Mouth and stomach
    • Chemical: Mouth, stomach, and small intestine

  • Order of Structures in Large Intestine:

    • Cecum
    • Ascending colon
    • Transverse colon
    • Descending colon
    • Sigmoid colon
    • Rectum
    • Anus

  • Peristalsis:

    • Wave-like muscle contractions that move food through the digestive tract

  • Villi:

    • Increase surface area for absorption
    • Located in the small intestine

  • Examples of Sugars and Carbohydrates:

    • Simple sugars: Glucose, fructose
    • Complex carbohydrates: Starch, cellulose

  • Function of Adipose Tissue:

    • Energy storage, insulation, and protection

Urinary System

  • Function:

    • Filters blood and removes waste in the form of urine

  • Location:

    • Located in the abdominal cavity

  • Structure Responsible for Reabsorbing Electrolytes and Nutrients:

    • Proximal convoluted tubule

  • Blood Entry into Nephron:

    • Afferent arteriole

  • Urine Composition:

    • Approximately 95% water

  • Purpose of Ureter:

    • Transports urine from kidney to bladder

  • Major Structures of Kidney:

    • Renal cortex
    • Renal medulla
    • Renal pelvis

Lymphatic/Immune System

  • Lymph:

    • Fluid containing white blood cells that bathes tissues and drains through the lymphatic system into the bloodstream.

  • Interstitial fluid:

    • Fluid between cells

  • Phagocyte:

    • A cell that engulfs and destroys bacteria, dead cells, or other waste

  • Histamines:

    • Compounds released by cells in response to injury and in allergic and inflammatory reactions, causing contraction of smooth muscle and dilation of capillaries.

  • Interferon:

    • A protein released by animal cells, usually in response to the entry of a virus, that has the property of inhibiting virus replication.

  • Lymph Nodes:

    • Filter lymph and play a role in immune response

  • Thymus:

    • Site of T cell maturation

  • Antibodies:

    • Proteins that recognize and bind to antigens, neutralizing them

  • Accessory Organs:

    • Spleen, thymus, tonsils

  • Lymph Composition:

    • Approximately 95% water

  • Function of Lymphatic System:

    • Fluid recovery
    • Immunity
    • Lipid absorption

  • Mechanical Barriers:

    • Physical barriers that prevent pathogen entry
    • Example: Skin, mucous membranes

  • Chemical Barriers:

    • Chemicals that destroy pathogens
    • Example: Lysozyme in tears, stomach acid

  • Vaccine Mechanism:

    • Stimulates the immune system to produce antibodies, providing immunity

  • Natural Killer Cells:

    • Destroy infected or cancerous cells

  • Passive Immunity:

    • Acquired antibodies from another source (e.g., mother to fetus)

  • First Line of Defense:

    • Skin, mucous membranes, and their secretions

Endocrine System

  • Function of the Endocrine System:

    • Regulation of body functions through hormones

  • Glands and Hormones:

    • Adrenal: Epinephrine, cortisol
    • Thyroid: Thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3)
    • Pituitary: Growth hormone, TSH, FSH, LH, and ADH
    • Pancreas: Insulin, glucagon

  • Growth Hormone Production:

    • Pituitary gland

  • Thyroxine Production:

    • Thyroid gland

  • Islets of Langerhans:

    • Located in the pancreas
    • Produce insulin (beta cells) and glucagon (alpha cells)

  • Endocrine and Immune System Connection:

    • The thymus gland plays a role in the immune system
    • Hormones can affect immune function

Reproductive System

  • Functions of the Reproductive System:

    • Produce gametes
    • Fertilization
    • Development and nourishment of offspring

  • Sperm Energy:

    • Mitochondria in the midpiece

  • Sperm Maturation and Storage:

    • Epididymis

  • Sperm Path to Urethra:

    • Epididymis → Vas deferens → Ejaculatory duct → Urethra

  • Testes Sac:

    • Scrotum

  • Menses Stage:

    • Shedding of the uterine lining
    • Caused by a decrease in estrogen and progesterone

  • Ovulation:

    • Release of an egg from the ovary

  • Sex Determination:

    • Male gametes (sperm) determine sex because they carry either an X or Y chromosome.

  • Fertilization Location:

    • Fallopian tube (oviduct)

  • Implantation Location:

    • Uterus

  • Fetal Nourishment:

    • Placenta

  • Embryo to Fetus:

    • After 8 weeks

  • Fetal Oxygen and Glucose:

    • Through the placenta via the umbilical cord

  • Trimester Length:

    • Approximately 3 months each

  • Stage 3 of Labor:

    • Delivery of the placenta