The Persian Empire, especially under the Achaemenid (ah-KEE-meh-nid) Dynasty, became one of the most expansive and sophisticated empires of the ancient world due to its strategic governance, infrastructure, and unique cultural tolerance.

(I) Judaism in the Persian Empire

• Although the Jewish population has always been relatively small, it played an essential role in Persian history. Cyrus the Great allowed Jewish people to return to Jerusalem and rebuild their temple, which greatly influenced Jewish history and religious texts. This example shows the Persian Empire’s remarkable religious tolerance.

(II) Cyrus the Great and His Empire

• Foundation of the Empire: Around 550 BCE, Cyrus the Great established the Achaemenid Empire by conquering neighboring kingdoms, expanding its territory to become the largest of its time, covering regions from the Indus River to Anatolia.

• Military Tactics: Known for his skills in cavalry and archery, Cyrus’s army was exceptionally mobile and strategic.

• Kind Treatment of Conquered Peoples: Cyrus instructed his generals not to destroy or loot cities, honoring local customs and religions. This approach reduced resistance and created loyalty among diverse groups.

• Jewish Support: In 538 BCE, Cyrus allowed the Jewish people to return to their homeland, a move recorded in the Tanakh. This act demonstrates his respect for other religions and contributed to his positive legacy.

• Historical Quote: Cyrus is quoted as attributing his success to the “Lord, God of heaven” and encouraging Jewish people to rebuild the temple in Jerusalem. This openness made him a benevolent and respected leader.

(III) Darius I: Expansion and Organization

• Reign and Expansion: Ruling from 522-485 BCE, Darius I expanded the empire even further, adding territories like Egypt, Macedonia, and the Indus Valley.

• Administrative Divisions: To manage the vast empire, Darius divided it into satrapies—administrative regions governed by local officials called satraps. This division was a pioneering bureaucratic structure.

• Unified Tax and Standards: Darius implemented a standardized taxation system and regulated weights, measures, and languages (officially adopting Persian and Aramaic). These standards helped streamline trade and communication across the empire.

• The Royal Road: Darius completed the Royal Road, a massive highway that connected the empire from Susa to Sardis. This road enabled fast communication and efficient transport, with messenger stations positioned a day's journey apart.

• Attempted Conquest of Greece: Darius attempted to invade Greece, leading to the Greco-Persian conflicts; although he ultimately failed, this campaign influenced future interactions between Persia and Greece.

• Support for Zoroastrian Temples: Darius funded the construction of temples dedicated to Zoroastrianism, the Persian state religion, reinforcing cultural unity.

(IV) The Cyrus Cylinder

• The Cyrus Cylinder is a nine-inch clay artifact regarded as one of the oldest known declarations of human rights. Dating back to 539 BCE, it documents Cyrus’s respect for local cultures and religions, highlighting his policy of tolerance. By allowing local populations to continue worshiping their gods and returning statues taken by the Babylonians, Cyrus created a stable and diverse empire.

  

(V) Infrastructure and the Royal Road

• The Royal Road built by Darius was vital for communication across the vast empire. The Greek historian Herodotus described the road's efficient relay system, noting that couriers were unaffected by weather conditions, ensuring a swift and reliable service.

(VI) Zoroastrianism

• Zoroastrianism is one of the world's oldest monotheistic religions, founded by the prophet Zoroaster (or Zarathustra in Persian) in ancient Persia, likely around the 6th century BCE, though some scholars place him as early as the 12th century BCE. The religion was the state religion of the Achaemenid Empire (c. 550–330 BCE) and has had a significant influence on later religious traditions, including Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.

  Core Beliefs and Teachings

  1. Ahura Mazda – The One God: Zoroastrianism is based on the belief in Ahura Mazda (meaning "Wise Lord" in Avestan, the ancient Zoroastrian language) as the supreme, all-knowing, and all-powerful creator deity. Ahura Mazda is the central figure in Zoroastrian cosmology and theology and is regarded as both transcendent (beyond human comprehension) and immanent (present in the world).

  2. Dualism – The Battle of Good and Evil: Zoroastrianism emphasizes a cosmic struggle between the forces of good and evil. Ahura Mazda represents good, truth, and light, while his adversary, Angra Mainyu (also known as Ahriman), embodies evil, falsehood, and darkness. This dualistic framework shapes Zoroastrian ethics, cosmology, and its view of the universe.

     • Good (Asha): The divine order of truth, righteousness, and justice.

     • Evil (Druj): The force of falsehood, chaos, and destruction.

     • Similar to the Daoist belief that people are both good and bad (balance of opposing forces / Yin and Yang).

     • Humans are seen as participants in this battle, with their choices contributing to the triumph of either good or evil.

  3. Human Free Will and Responsibility: Zoroastrianism teaches that humans have free will and must actively choose between good and evil, helping to uphold the divine order. A person’s thoughts, words, and actions can either align with Asha (truth) or Druj (falsehood), and their decisions determine their fate in the afterlife.

  4. The Threefold Path of Goodness: Zoroastrians believe that the key to living a righteous life is through the practice of:

     • Good Thoughts (Humata)

     • Good Words (Hukhta)

     • Good Deeds (Hvarshta)

     This triad forms the moral code of the faith, guiding individuals toward virtuous living and ensuring their participation in the cosmic battle against evil.

  5. The Afterlife and Judgment: Zoroastrian eschatology (doctrine of the afterlife) includes a judgment after death:

     • The Chinvat Bridge: After death, each soul crosses a bridge that connects the material world to the spiritual realm. If the soul is righteous, it crosses the bridge safely to paradise; if wicked, it falls into a pit of hell.

     • Frashokereti (Final Renovation): In the end times, there will be a cosmic renewal when the forces of good triumph over evil, and the world is purified. The dead will be resurrected, and everyone will be judged, with the final victory of Asha (truth and order) over Druj (falsehood and chaos).

(VII) Ahura Mazda and the Behistun Inscription

• Ahura Mazda: The supreme god of Zoroastrianism, Ahura Mazda represented truth and order.

• The Behistun Inscription: A long narrative that reports on many events and topics.

  • Darius’s rise to power: It describes the overthrow of the previous king Gaumata, who had taken the throne by deceit and who was eventually defeated by Darius in 522 BCE.

  • The rebellions and their suppression: Darius recounts his successful campaigns to crush various revolts and pretenders to the throne, including in Babylonia, Media, and Persia.

  • Divine support: Darius repeatedly asserts that his rule is divinely ordained and sanctioned by the supreme god Ahura Mazda. He claims that the god chose him to be king and helped him in his military endeavors.

  The inscription is also accompanied by a large bas-relief that depicts Darius standing on a platform, with his foot placed on the chest of a defeated enemy (likely Gaumata). The bas-relief also shows the captured rebels being presented to the king, symbolizing the restoration of order and justice.

  

• Ruler’s Reflections on Justice: In the inscription, Darius emphasizes the importance of truth and condemns lies, urging future rulers to maintain justice to secure the empire. He claims all his achievements are due to Ahura Mazda’s grace, presenting himself as a pious and rightful ruler.

  • This ideology is similar to the Mandate of Heaven in ancient China, which was a set of beliefs used to justify the emperor’s rule by claiming that the emperor was “chosen by the gods to rule.”

  • Excerpt from the Behistun Inscription

    (53) King Darius says: “These nine kings did I capture in these wars.”

    (54) King Darius says: “As to these provinces which revolted, lies made them revolt, so that they deceived the people. Then Ahuramazda delivered them into my hand; and I did unto them according to my will.”

    (55) King Darius says: “You who shall be king hereafter, protect yourself vigorously from lies; punish the liars well, if thus you shall think, ‘May my country be secure!’“

    (56) King Darius says: “This is what I have done, by the grace of Ahuramazda have I always acted. Whosoever shall read this inscription hereafter, let that which I have done be believed. You must not hold it to be lies.”

    (57) King Darius says: “I call Ahuramazda to witness that is true and not lies; all of it have I done in a single year.”

    (58) King Darius says: “By the grace of Ahuramazda I did much more, which is not graven in this inscription. On this account it has not been inscribed lest he who shall read this inscription hereafter should then hold that which has been done by me to be excessive and not believe it and takes it to be lies.”

(VIII) Summary

• Tolerance and Governance: The Persian Empire’s strategy of religious tolerance, respect for local customs, and efficient administration helped unify a vast and diverse population under one rule.

• Administrative Innovations: The satrapy system, unified taxation, and standardized systems of weights and measures enabled effective governance across regions.

• Infrastructure: Roads like the Royal Road promoted efficient trade, communication, and control across distant territories.

• Religious Influence: Zoroastrianism shaped the empire's cultural and moral identity, with its beliefs in good, evil, and personal responsibility. Persian kings aligned their rule with Ahura Mazda, reinforcing their legitimacy and guiding principles.

(IX) Textbook Notes (Voyages 158-166)

• King Minos ruled a large empire with many ships. The Minoans created many pottery artifacts and likely had an extensive trade network.

• The Minoan civilization ended in 1500 BCE after seemingly having been conquered by the Mycenaeans.

• The Mycenaeans used Linear B, a dialect of Greek, to communicate in writing. Their writing system remained undeciphered until just recently under a century ago.

• The epics The Odyssey and The Iliad recounted the Trojan Wars, which were allegedly fought centuries earlier between the Greeks and the Trojans in modern-day Turkey.

• The Phoenicians developed a writing system that consisted of 22 consonants, each representing a sound rather than a meaning. In most other writing systems then, each symbol alluded to a separate meaning. Many civilizations began to adopt the Phoenicians’ system of writing since it was easier to learn.

• The Phoenicians shared their knowledge of geography and their alphabet with the Greeks.

• In around 500 BCE, various regions, including mainland Greece, the islands of Aegean and the eastern Mediterranean, and the Aegean coast of Turkey—coalesced into city-states. Each had its own courts, law code, and army. They also each had a guardian deity whose temple was located within the city walls.

• The Olympic games were held every four years starting in 776 BCE at the temple to Zeus at Olympia in the Peloponnese.

• Trade was maintained between the 250 Greek city-states. The Greeks eventually adopted the Phoenician alphabet and added their own vowels.

• Many Greek city-states had job specialization and social hierarchies. In Sparta, for example, many citizens were granted extensive rights. The lowest-ranking group consisted of full-time slaves (Helots).

• Athens established the framework for several modern-day political concepts, including democracy and freedom of speech.

• Athens was once attacked by Persia (under Darius) but shockingly won the fight. According to Herodotus (Greek writer and geographer), the Athenians lost 192 men, while the Persians lost a whopping 6,400, which is almost 34 times more.

• Darius’s son Xerxes avenged his father’s defeat by gathering a huge army in order to frighten the Greeks into surrendering. Although Spartan soldier’s stood firm and tried to stand their ground, the Persians proved victorious and pillaged (raided) the deserted city of Athens.

• Athens later became the “leader” of Greece. However, the Spartans felt that they should have been the leader instead. This led to the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War, in which Sparta took the trophy.

• Athens was home to some of the best known philosophers in the history of the entire world, including Socrates, Plato (student of Socrates), and Aristotle (student of Plato).