psy 1a

I. INTRODUCTION

  • Development results from constant interaction between biology and environment.
  • Gene–environment interactions shape outcomes.
    • Example: serotonin transporter gene + early abuse → higher risk of depression.
  • Resilience is influenced by biological systems like glucocorticoids, cytokines, and neurotrophins.
  • Allostasis explains how individuals achieve stability when facing stress through biological and environmental interactions.
  • Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) can significantly alter developmental trajectories.
  • The adolescent brain undergoes changes in white and gray matter to support growth in social skills.
  • Rapid adaptation to technology highlights developmental flexibility in adolescents.

II. PHASES OF DEVELOPMENT

  • Table 1. Phases of Development
    • Phase: Prenatal
    • Duration: Conception to 8 weeks
    • Phase: Fetus/Fetal Stage
    • Duration: 8 weeks to birth
    • Phase: Infancy
    • Duration: Birth to 15 months
    • Phase: Toddler
    • Duration: 15 months to 2 ½ years
    • Phase: Preschooler
    • Duration: 2 ½ years to 6 years
    • Phase: Middle Years
    • Duration: 6 to 12 years
    • Phase: Early Adolescence
    • Duration: 12 to 14 years
    • Phase: Middle Adolescence
    • Duration: 14 to 16 years
    • Phase: Late Adolescence
    • Duration: 17 to 19 years
    • Phase: Young Adulthood
    • Duration: 20 to 40 years
    • Phase: Middle Adulthood
    • Duration: 40 to 65 years
    • Phase: Old Age or Late Adulthood
    • Young-old: 65 to 74 years
    • Old-old: Above 75 years
    • Oldest-old: Above 85 years

III. PRENATAL/FETAL LIFE

  • After implantation, the egg begins to divide and is known as an embryo.
  • By the end of 8 weeks, the structure is recognizably human, termed a fetus.
    • The fetus maintains internal equilibrium influenced by the intrauterine environment.
    • Fetal development is rapid and highly vulnerable; multifactorial influences can cause developmental damage.
  • Boys are more vulnerable to developmental damage than girls due to higher vigor in female fetuses (second X chromosome).
  • The Nervous System arises from the ectoderm.
    • Neural Tube: Central Nervous System (CNS)
    • Neural Crest Cells: Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

IV. FETAL LIFE

  • Much biological activity occurs in utero; the fetus engages in behaviors necessary for external adaptation.
  • Fetal Behaviors include thumb-sucking, body movement, and optimal positioning for birth.
    • Vertex Presentation: The ideal head-first position for vaginal delivery.
    • Breech Presentation: The buttocks or legs are the first to pass through the pelvis.
  • Fetal movements are quiet during maternal activity but active when the mother rests.
    • Fetal movements detected at 16-20 weeks; hearing developed by 18 weeks.
    • Eye structures functioning at 20 weeks; eyelids open at 7 months.
    • Reflexes: Grasp reflex starts at 17 weeks, Moro reflex at 25 weeks, sucking reflex at 28 weeks.
  • Nervous System Development:
    • The cerebral cortex begins development by week 10, but layers appear only by the sixth month.
    • Some brain functions can be detected in utero.
    • Brain weighs about 350g at birth and 1,450g at full adult development.
    • Notable synaptic growth occurs after birth.
    • Microglial cells come from the mesoderm.
    • Uterine contractions can stimulate fetal neural development through sensory impulse transmission.
A. PRUNING
  • Pruning: Programmed elimination of neurons, synapses, etc., from birth to a lesser number later on.
    • In visual cortex: Neurons increase until 3 years then diminish.
    • Excitotoxicity from excessive stimulation can affect neurodevelopmental integrity, important for schizophrenia etiology.
B. MATERNAL STRESS
  • High maternal stress correlates with elevated stress hormones in the fetal bloodstream, impacting fetal health.
    • Stress can result in hyperactivity and low birth weight in newborns.
C. GENETIC DISORDERS
  • Various prenatal diagnoses detect genetic disorders: amniocentesis, ultrasound, etc.
    • 2% of women tested show abnormalities.
  • Testing recommended for women over 35 and those with a history of congenital issues.
    • Psychological effects on parents can include guilt or anxiety.
D. MATERNAL DRUG USE
  • Alcohol: The most common teratogen; Fetal Alcohol Syndrome affects one-third of babies born to alcoholic women.
    • Each year, up to 40,000 infants show alcohol-related damage.
  • Smoking: Linked to premature births and low birth weight; associated with SIDS.
  • Other Substances: Various medications and illegal drugs also have teratogenic effects, impacting fetal development significantly.

V. INFANCY PERIOD

  • Newborn average weight: About 3,400g (7.5 lb)
    • Premature Infants:
    • Defined as gestation <34 weeks or weight <2,500g (5.5 lb).
    • Risks: learning disabilities, emotional issues, etc.
  • Average gestation: 38-40 weeks.
  • Primitive Reflexes Present at Birth:
    • Rooting reflex: Puckering of lips upon stimulation.
    • Grasp reflex disappears by 4 months.
    • Sucking reflex, startle reflex, etc. are vital for survival.
A. LANDMARK OF NORMAL BEHAVIORAL DEVELOPMENT
  • Table 4 outlines motor, sensory, adaptive, and social behaviors at different ages from birth to 52 weeks.
B. LANGUAGE AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
  • Infants at birth can vocalize but do not start babbling until about 8 weeks.
  • Developmental theorists mentioned include Jean Piaget, two of his stages:
    • Sensorimotor Stage: Birth to 2 years; includes reflexive actions that evolve into intentions.
C. EMOTIONAL AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
  • Infants can imitate facial movements by three weeks old, engaging emotionally.
  • Stages of emotional development:
    • Endogenous smiling occurs by 2 months.
    • Mutuality in caregiving plays a crucial role in emotional growth.
  • Prolonged maternal separation can lead to depression persisting into adulthood.
D. TEMPERAMENTAL DIFFERENCES
  • Chess and Thomas identified behavioral dimensions indicating variations among infants.
E. BONDING VERSUS ATTACHMENT
  • Bonding refers to the emotional relationship a mother develops with her baby, whereas attachment is the baby's response to caregivers.
F. ATTACHMENT
  • Studies by Harry Harlow highlight comfort's importance over feeding in attachment formation.
    • Bowlby and Ainsworth expanded on this, showing how consistent attachment impacts later behaviors.
G. SOCIAL DEPRIVATION SYNDROMES AND MATERNAL NEGLECT
  • Documented developmental retardation from maternal rejection.
H. FATHERS AND ATTACHMENT
  • Fathers often play differently, focusing on play rather than caregiving, influencing attachment dynamics.
I. STRANGER AND SEPARATION ANXIETY
  • Developmentally expected fears arise around 26 weeks for strangers and persist between 10-18 months for separation.
J. STAGES OF SEPARATION-INDIVIDUATION
  • Proposed by Margaret Mahler; involves understanding identity and separation from the mother in stages.
K. INFANT CARE
  • Infants also significantly influence family dynamics through their behaviors and needs.
L. PARENTAL FIT
  • Describes the compatibility between parental and infant temperaments influencing behavior.
M. GOOD-ENOUGH MOTHERING
  • Donald Winnicott emphasizes that mothers provide necessary environments for infant development.

VI. TODDLER PERIOD

  • Marked increase in motor skills and language development; toddlers learn to assert independence.
A. LANGUAGE AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
  • Vocabulary expands; by the end of the second year, children begin symbolic play.
B. EMOTIONAL AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
  • Emotional differentiation increases; social referencing begins with parents as guides.
C. SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
  • Awareness of anatomical differences develops, leading to exploration shaped by parenting style.
D. TOILET TRAINING
  • Social demand increases; typically complete by age 2.5 for daytime control.
E. PARENTING CHALLENGES
  • Parents should balance authority and autonomy, allowing toddlers to learn from their experiences.

VII. PRESCHOOL PERIOD

  • Significant physical and emotional growth; children become ready for school by age 5-6.
A. LANGUAGE AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
  • Egocentric thinking dominates; children begin to think symbolically.
B. EMOTIONAL AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOR
  • Emotional complexity develops, along with capacities for empathy and cooperation.
C. SIBLING RIVALRY
  • The birth of a sibling tests cooperation and sharing, which can introduce rivalry.
D. PLAY
  • Development of play types from parallel to cooperative as children grow.
E. IMAGINARY COMPANIONS
  • Common in preschool years, often relieving loneliness and anxiety.

VIII. MIDDLE YEARS

  • Transition to elementary school with significant academic and social implications.
A. LANGUAGE AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
  • Logical reasoning and organized thinking emerge; social interactions change focus.
B. EMOTIONAL AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOR
  • By age 9-10, capacities for love and stable relationships develop with peers.
C. BEST FRIEND
  • Best friendships become influential in psychological growth during school years.
D. SCHOOL REFUSAL
  • Fear of separation or anxiety can manifest in school refusal behaviors.
E. SEX ROLE DEVELOPMENT
  • Clarifications of sex roles influenced by parental expectations and behavior.
F. DREAM AND SLEEP
  • Dreaming evolves, indicating a child's cognitive processing during sleep.
G. BIRTH SPACING
  • Impacts on health and development are seen based on spacing between children.
H. BIRTH ORDER
  • Influences personality and behavior as children navigate sibling dynamics.

IX. CHILDREN AND DIVORCE

  • Age during a parent's divorce significantly affects children's emotional and behavioral responses.

X. DIVORCE

  • Lasting psychological trauma can result from divorce, varying between genders.

XI. STEPPARENTS

  • Adaptation to stepparents influences familial dynamics and relationships.

XII. FAMILY FACTORS IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT

  • Family stability and dynamics significantly influence children's developmental outcomes.

XIII. ADVERSE EVENTS

  • Significant early adverse events interact with genetics to affect developmental trajectories.

XIV. DAYCARE

  • Daycare impacts on assertiveness, toilet training, and cognitive development are varied.

XV. PARENTING STYLES

  • Parenting styles vary; Rutter identified four categories impacting child development.

XVI. DEVELOPMENT AND EXPRESSION OF PSYCHOPATHOLOGY

  • Diagnostic challenges arise due to variable expressions of disorders during early childhood.

Note: The notes include essential terms, concepts, theories, and relevant statistics and implications as discussed in the original transcript. All important definitions, examples, and tables have been included to provide a comprehensive understanding of the discussed material.