Early Civilizations of the Middle East

Introduction to Early Civilizations in the Middle East

• Focus on geographical perspectives rather than chronological timelines.

• Emphasis on the limited interaction between early civilizations.

Sumerians

• The Sumerians were the first major civilization in the Middle East, thriving for approximately 2,500 years (c. 4500-1900 BC).

• Key points of interest:

  • The Sumerian civilization included around a dozen independent city-states (e.g., Ur, Uruk, Lagash).

  • Developed cuneiform, one of the earliest systems of writing.

  • Built ziggurats, massive stepped temple towers, as religious and administrative centers.

  • Their civilization lasted longer than the distance we are from the foundations of the Roman Republic.

  • Common frustration in survey courses is the brevity of coverage (e.g., Sumerians given only about ten minutes of discussion).

Threatening Pastoralist Groups

• Civilizations like the Sumerians often faced threats from pastoralist groups.

• Dynamics of agricultural societies vs. pastoralist groups:

  • Pastoralists were often envious of the food security and stability of agricultural societies.

  • The source of danger for Sumerians came from the Arabian Desert to the south.

  • The term "Semitic pastoralists" is used to describe a group related to the pastoralists from the Arabian Desert:

  • They share linguistic and cultural connections.

  • Anti-Semitic terminology originates from this grouping but extends beyond just Jewish identity.

Akkadians (c. 2334-2154 BC)

• An early pastoralist group that invaded Sumerian regions around 2334 BC, led by Sargon of Akkad.

• Described characteristics of Akkadian invasions:

  • Sargon established the first known empire in history by conquering Sumerian city-states.

  • They attempted to take control of the rich territories of Sumer.

  • Their understanding of local lifestyles was minimal; they largely misunderstood agricultural life, leading to difficulties in governance.

  • Resulted in chaos:

  • Three centuries of civil war between Sumerian cities and Akkadian forces.

  • Included internal conflict among Sumerian cities as they tried to repel Akkadian influence.

Amorites (c. 1894-1595 BC)

• Another pastoralist group that emerged after the Akkadians, invading around 1894 BC.

• Lessons from the Akkadians:

  • Amorites chose to create their own settlements rather than trying to control existing Sumerian cities, specifically founding Babylon as their capital (c. 1894 BC).

  • This strategy was fundamentally different from that of the Akkadians, focusing on establishing new centers of power.

  • The establishment of Babylon proved to be successful, allowing the Amorites to stabilize the region within a century, leading to the Old Babylonian Empire.

Code of Hammurabi (c. 1754 BC)

• Following the establishment of the Babylonian empire by the Amorites, King Hammurabi created a codified set of 282 laws.

• Characteristics of the Code:

  • Primarily focused on issues of ownership, including both property and human property (slavery).

  • Discussed various aspects of slavery, including rights, responsibilities, and the limits of treatment of enslaved individuals.

  • Covered diverse areas such as family law (marriage, divorce, inheritance), property law, and commercial regulations.

  • Differentiation in laws based on social classes:

  • "An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth" principle (lex talionis), but punishments varied according to the social status of both the perpetrator and victim (e.g., injury to a noble carried a harsher penalty than injury to a commoner).

  • The concept of punishment served to establish order, reflecting the rigid hierarchy within society.

  • The Code was publicly displayed on stone pillars (stelae) around the empire, indicating the significance of literacy and public awareness of laws, though full literacy was limited.

Indo-European Pastoralists

• Discussion of Indo-European pastoralists living in the Steppe region:

  • The Steppe was defined as a vast open plain area between Eastern Europe and Western Asia, fostering a highly mobile culture.

  • Indo-Europeans used horses extensively, defining their culture around horse domestication and mobility, leading to widespread influence across Eurasia.

  • Their migrations spread language families, technological innovations, and cultural practices.

• Examples of groups arising from Indo-European cultural foundations:

  • Hellenes (ancient Greeks) – contributed foundational elements to Western civilization.

  • Italics (ancestors of the Romans) – established the Roman Republic and Empire.

  • Celts (living in pockets throughout Europe, including modern Ireland, Scotland) – known for their distinct art and oral traditions.

  • Hittites (influential in the Middle East, known for metal technology, specifically bronze to iron).

Hittites and Their Influence (c. 1600-1178 BC)

• The Hittites emerged in Anatolia (modern Turkey) around 1600 BC, significantly impacting the dynamics in the Middle East.

• Innovations in technology:

  • Masters of ironworking, transitioning from copper to bronze to iron, giving them significant military advantages in weapons and tools.

  • This technology provided them with superior capabilities compared to bronze-wielding contemporaries.

• Their conflict with Babylonians and interactions with Egyptians:

  • Launched attacks into Babylon (c. 1595 BC), contributing to the downfall of the Amorite dynasty but did not fully conquer the region.

  • Engaged in major conflicts with the New Kingdom of Egypt, notably the Battle of Kadesh (c. 1274 BC), which resulted in the world's first known peace treaty.

  • Expansion of their influence across the Mediterranean, establishing a powerful empire.

Assyrians (c. 911-609 BC)

• By 700 BC, Assyrians became known for their brutal military conquest strategies and their highly organized army, overpowering many established civilizations (Babylonians, Hebrews, etc.).

• Military tactics included:

  • Siege warfare using sophisticated engineering techniques.

  • Mass deportation of conquered peoples to prevent rebellion and integrate populations.

  • Extensive use of terror tactics to subdue enemies.

• Contrasted with earlier civilizations in their tendency to destroy rather than govern societies post-conquest, leading to widespread resentment.

• The instability in the Assyrian Empire due to overextension and internal conflicts (e.g., succession disputes) led to their eventual decline and overthrow by a coalition of Babylonians and Medes in 609 BC.

Hebrews and Their Development (c. 2000 BC onward)

• The Hebrews, emerging around 2000 BC with figures like Abraham, initially were pastoralists but evolved significantly after interactions with Egyptians (e.g., the Exodus from Egypt under Moses).

• Key religious and social developments:

  • Shift from polytheism to monotheism (worship of one god, Yahweh), formalized through the covenant with Moses and the giving of the Torah.

  • This transition influenced Hebrew social structures, emphasizing a unique national and religious identity.

  • Monotheism set them apart as one of the only unique cultures actively practicing this faith around 1000 BC.

  • Establishment of a monarchy under Saul, David, and Solomon.

  • Solomon’s reign (c. 970-931 BC) marked a peak period for Hebrew culture, including significant building projects like the First Temple in Jerusalem.

  • After Solomon, the kingdom divided into Israel (north) and Judah (south).

Phoenicians (c. 1500-300 BC)

• Following the Hebrews, the Phoenicians emerged around 1500 BC along the coast of the Levant, becoming adept maritime traders and navigators.

• Key achievements and influence:

  • They established colonies across the Mediterranean, primarily for trade, including the significant city of Carthage in North Africa.

  • Developed advanced naval technology, mastering sea navigation and extensive trade routes, linking distant regions like Spain and even the Atlantic coast of Africa.

  • Traded goods included purple dye (from murex snails), cedar timber, glass, and metalwork.

• The Phoenician alphabet:

  • Innovated by creating a phonetic writing system (c. 1200 BC) consisting of 22 consonants, which streamlined communication across diverse cultures.

  • This alphabet, simpler than cuneiform or hieroglyphics, was highly influential, serving as the basis for later alphabet systems, including the Greek alphabet, which in turn influenced the Latin and ultimately the English alphabet.

Conclusion

• The dynamic between agricultural and pastoralist societies fundamentally shaped early civilizations in the Middle East, leading to complex social structures and innovations.

• Continued interactions and conflicts among these groups played a crucial role in the development of cultural and political landscapes in the region, fostering cycles of conquest, assimilation, and technological advancement.