The Era of Reform and the Second Great Awakening

Exam Preparation Details

• A notecard will be allowed for the Friday in-class assessment.
• Content covered will include material from both class discussions and assigned book chapters.
• Notecard specifications:
  • Basic, small, approximately $3 \times 5$ inches.
  • Can be a cut piece of paper if an actual notecard isn't available.
  • Content must be handwritten.
  • Purpose is to aid in recalling information from assigned readings and assess reading comprehension.

The Era of Reform in U.S. History: Major Themes (Recap from Monday)

• Population Growth: Experiencing natural growth alongside significant migration and immigration, leading to the rapid expansion of cities.
• Reasons for Societal Changes: Many attributed current societal changes, both positive and negative, to several key factors:
  • Democracy: Seen as a double-edged sword; while it fostered new ideas and greater individual input, some perceived it as developing "too much, too fast," potentially contributing to societal problems.
  • Economic System: The rise of Capitalism and free markets was a defining feature of the era.
  • Individualism: This was a foundational concept, deeply connected to both democracy and the free market. It promoted the idea that people had more autonomy over their livelihoods, how they earned money, and where they could do so. Individualism became the overarching concept defining American society.

Perceived Societal Problems and Proposed Solutions

• The "Moral Failure" of Society: Contemporaries expressed widespread concern, highlighted by daily newspaper reports, about:
  • An increase in "vices" and violence.
  • Societal breakdown, suggesting the nation was "tearing itself apart" and "going to hell in a handbasket."
  • A perception of impending social collapse rooted in moral failure.
• Root Cause of Moral Failure: This was widely attributed to a pervasive increase in selfishness and self-centeredness among individuals.
  • The belief was that people focused solely on personal gain, disregarding the exploitation, harm, or robbery of others, as long as their own desires were met.
  • The emphasis on individualism, fueled by democracy and economic freedom, was seen as fostering an unchecked "do whatever you want" mentality, eroding collective well-being.
• Proposed Solution: Self-Control (The Moral Compass):
  • The prevailing solution was for individuals to willingly control their actions, behaviors, and moral compass.
  • Emphasis was placed on focusing more on the welfare of others rather than narrow self-interest.
  • Lack of self-control was viewed as the cause of America's societal decline.
  • Humanization Aspect: Self-control was considered a defining human trait. Those lacking it were deemed "animalistic" and a "danger to society," leading to efforts to "humanize" people.
  • A key question: "I can do this, but should I do this?"
  • This concept also extended to controlling population growth (birth control through self-control) and curbing vices.
• Role of Religion: Religion emerged as a central answer to instill this necessary moral compass in people.

Decline and Rebirth of Religion in America

The Decline in the 18th and Early 19th Centuries

• Low Church Attendance: By the early 19th century, only $1 \text{ in } 20$ Americans (approximately $5\%$) regularly attended church.
• Church Closures: Between $1790$ and $1800$, $10\%$ of all American churches closed due to lack of attendance and inability to support ministers.
• Lack of Interest in Organized Religion: While personal religious beliefs might persist, there was a widespread disinterest in structured, institutional religious services.
• Reasons for the Decline:
  • Separation of Church and State: An Enlightenment ideal, U.S. policy explicitly kept government and church separate. This was a significant break from European tradition where church and state were often intertwined (e.g., Church of England controlled by the state). The fear was that state involvement would lead to the corruption and politicking of the church, diverting it from its religious mission.
  • Enlightenment Ideas - Rationality and Reasoning: This intellectual movement encouraged people to question everything, including religious dogma.
    • Questions arose regarding the literal truth of the Bible, whether miracles were actual events or metaphors, and the divinity of figures like Jesus.
    • This skepticism diminished the perceived "point" of church attendance for many.
  • Dislike of Organized Church Structure: Many viewed churches as "cold and distant," offering long ($3-4$ hour), pre-written, and often theological dissertation-like sermons that many found inaccessible.
    • The services were perceived as sterile, routine, and lacking personal connection or freedom for individual thought, demanding submission to theological authority.

The Rebirth: The Second Great Awakening ($c. \text{ } 1790 - 1860$)

• Massive Shift in Religious Observance: From only 1 in 20 Americans attending church regularly around $1800$, by $1860$ an "overwhelming population" (approximately $26,000,000$ out of a total population of $31,500,000$) were fairly regular churchgoers.
• Trigger: Revivalism: This movement led to the creation of the Second Great Awakening.
  • Comparison to First Great Awakening: The First Great Awakening (mid-18th century, before the American Revolution) also saw a massive increase in church attendance but eventually died off. The Second Great Awakening's influence would persist much longer, even into the present day.
• Purpose of Revivalism: To re-order, educate, and "humanize" society in response to perceived secularization (shift away from religious values).
• Hallmarks of 19th-Century Revivalism:
  • Emotional and Active Services: Contrastingly different from the "sterile" 18th-century services.
    • Emphasized the "need to feel salvation," manifested in shouting, crying, and a generally chaotic, highly emotional atmosphere.
    • Preachers spoke "off the cuff," using common language understandable to anyone, rather than reading pre-written, complex theological texts.
    • Salvation was validated by a personal, felt experience: "How do you know you're saved? Because you felt it."
  • Connection to Individualism: "Ability and Decision":
    • Personal Bible Reading: Encouraged individuals to read and interpret the Bible for themselves, believing God would inspire their personal understanding, rather than relying solely on clergy.
    • Self-Control in Devotion: Stressed individual discipline in religious devotion, taking responsibility for one's own salvation.
    • Salvation as a Choice: At the core of revivalist preaching was the idea that individuals possessed the ability to decide their eternal fate. One chooses to accept salvation (heaven) or reject it (hell). This placed the power squarely on the individual.
    • Contrast with Predestination: The prevailing 18th-century theological concept of predestination (God alone chooses who goes to heaven or hell) was seen by 19th-century Americans as akin to a monarchy, where an external power dictated one's destiny without individual freedom. Revivalism's emphasis on free will and individual choice aligned perfectly with the democratic spirit and expanding individualism of America.
  • Moral Suasion (Key Term): This was the primary method for promoting societal change, not through government force.
    • Definition: Using morality to persuade individuals to change their own behavior.
    • It recognized that one cannot force another to change. Instead, individuals must be convinced of the wrongness of their actions and the superiority of an alternative moral path.
    • The ultimate choice for change rests with the individual; attempting to force it would violate democratic and individualistic principles.

Other Religious Idea: Unitarianism

• Contrast with Revivalism: Unitarianism stood as a "polar opposite," prioritizing human reason and rationality over emotion.
• Key Tenet: Disbelief in the divinity of Christ. Unitarians believe in only one divine being (God), hence "uni" (one). Jesus was viewed as a virtuous human, a philosophical guide whose teachings should be emulated, but not divine.
• Disbelief in the Trinity: Rejected the concept of God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit.
• Emphasis on Thought: Focus was on philosophical reasoning, careful interpretation, and rational understanding of biblical texts, questioning their literal versus metaphorical legitimacy.
• Moral Suasion: Likewise employed moral suasion, primarily through logical arguments and intellectual understanding.

Millennialism: America's Divine Mission

• Concept: The belief that the United States held a special, God-given mission in the world, uniquely created to fulfill a specific divine purpose.
• Theological Debate: The Millennium (1000 years of peace): Debate centered on when this period occurs in relation to Christ's return.
  • Premillennialism: Christ returns first, establishes His kingdom on Earth for 1000 years of peace, then takes everyone to heaven, and the Earth is destroyed. This view implies humanity is largely powerless, and God unilaterally decides the timing, aligning with predestination-like ideas.
  • Postmillennialism (Predominant during the Second Great Awakening): Christ will not return until a thousand years of peace and sinlessness have been established on Earth by human effort.
    • Individual Responsibility: This placed the responsibility squarely on individuals and society to spread religion, establish peace, order, and eliminate irreligion and immoral behaviors to create this sinless society that would precede Christ's return.
    • Connection to Individualism: This belief empowered individuals, affirming that "people have the power" to bring about the millennium, rather than being passive observers.
• Impact on America's Worldview:
  • Americans believed their victory in the Revolution was a divine intervention, reinforcing their special status.
  • It became America's "duty" to usher in the millennium, a heavy weight on its shoulders. Failure would imply a failure of their divine mission.
  • Justification for Domestic Reform: The belief that "we have to clean off our house before we can go out and fix the rest of the world." America could not lead others morally if its own society was corrupt.
  • Urgency of Reform: Any moral issue, even in a small town, became a "national issue" due to the imperative for the nation to be perfect to fulfill its divine mission. This urgent, religious dimension intensified the reform movements of the era.

Confluence with Romanticism

• European Cultural Movement (18th-19th Century): Emphasized emotion, the heart, and feeling over pure reason and intellect.
• Origins: Arose from the French Revolution, which was characterized by passionate action rather than solely intellectual thought (e.g., people "felt something was wrong" and acted).
• Artistic Influence: Inspired changes in painting and music, aiming to evoke strong emotional connections and individual feelings (happiness, anger, etc.).
• Connection to American Revivalism: Romanticism's focus on individual emotion and the heart (over the mind) mirrored the emotional emphasis of American revivalism, further reinforcing the era's pervasive focus on the individual in both cultural and religious contexts globally, not just in America.