Unit 7
7.2
The Imperialism Debates involved varying perspectives, with William Jennings Bryan opposing U.S. conquest due to its governmental structure, traditions, interests, and welfare. U.S. foreign policy before 1890 was primarily focused on westward expansion, protecting U.S. interests abroad, and limiting foreign influence in the Americas through the Monroe Doctrine. Post-Civil War expansion saw increased interest in overseas trade and establishing bases in the Caribbean and Pacific, sparking debates over joining imperialist competition versus maintaining anti-colonial traditions.
Expansion after the Civil War was significantly influenced by William H. Seward, who served as Secretary of State under Lincoln and Johnson. Seward prevented British and French intervention in the Civil War, annexed Midway Island, gained rights to build a canal in Nicaragua, purchased Alaska for million in 1867, and attempted to annex Hawaii and purchase the Danish West Indies. The purchase of Alaska, initially dubbed "Seward's Folly" or "Seward's Icebox" due to perceived lack of value, was partly motivated by appreciation for Russian support during the Civil War.
In the Hawaiian Islands, American missionaries and entrepreneurs settled in the mid-1800s, leading to U.S. interest in using Pearl Harbor. Ulysses S. Grant sought control of Pearl Harbor and trade treaties in 1870. A treaty in 1875 granted the U.S. exclusive rights to Hawaiian sugar. American settlers overthrew Queen Liliuokalani in 1893 and sought annexation, though President Grover Cleveland opposed imperialism and blocked it.
The era of “New Imperialism” saw industrialized nations like Britain, France, Germany, Russia, Japan, and Belgium conquering and dividing Africa, Asia, and the Pacific. The U.S. participated mainly through economic and diplomatic means, marking a shift from its past policies. Economic interests drove this expansion, with growing industries seeking raw materials and markets abroad. Republicans and business leaders supported imperialism, while farmers looked for overseas markets. Political and military power also played a role, as the U.S. aimed to compete with other imperialistic nations. Alfred Thayer Mahan advocated for a strong navy in The Influence of Sea Power Upon History (1890), leading to the construction of modern steel ships and acquisition of overseas islands for naval bases. By 1900, the U.S. Navy was the third largest globally. Social fears, such as the Panic of 1893 and labor conflicts, contributed to the push for overseas territories as a safety valve. Darwinism and religion also played a role, with expansion seen as an extension of Manifest Destiny and Anglo-Saxons considered superior.
7.3
The Spanish-American War in 1898 marked a turning point in U.S. foreign policy, transitioning from continental expansion to global involvement. The war originated from Cuban efforts to gain independence from Spain, with growing American economic interests in Cuba adding to the tensions. Sensationalist journalism, known as yellow journalism, fueled public support for intervention after events such as the explosion of the USS Maine in Havana harbor.
The U.S. victory was swift, with key battles fought in Cuba and the Philippines. Commodore George Dewey's naval victory at Manila Bay in the Philippines was decisive, leading to U.S. occupation of the islands. In Cuba, battles such as San Juan Hill, where Theodore Roosevelt and the Rough Riders gained fame, led to Spanish defeat. The Treaty of Paris in 1898 granted Cuba its independence, while the U.S. acquired Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines from Spain.
The acquisition of the Philippines sparked considerable debate in the U.S. over imperialism. Supporters argued that the Philippines provided strategic access to Asian markets and were essential for maintaining U.S. power in the Pacific. Opponents, including the Anti-Imperialist League, argued that acquiring the Philippines violated American ideals of self-government and risked entangling the U.S. in Asian conflicts. The U.S. suppressed a Filipino insurrection led by Emilio Aguinaldo, resulting in significant loss of life and a prolonged, brutal conflict.
Following the Spanish-American War, U.S. foreign policy under presidents Theodore Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, and Woodrow Wilson focused on maintaining stability in the Western Hemisphere and expanding American influence abroad. Roosevelt's "Big Stick Diplomacy" involved intervening in Latin American affairs to protect U.S. interests, most notably with the construction of the Panama Canal. Taft's "Dollar Diplomacy" sought to promote U.S. economic interests in Latin America and East Asia through investment and loans. Wilson's "Moral Diplomacy" aimed to promote democracy and human rights, but also led to interventions in Mexico and the Caribbean.
The Progressive Era influenced foreign policy by emphasizing efficiency and expertise. Reformers believed that U.S. intervention could bring progress and stability to other nations, aligning with the era's belief in American exceptionalism and the responsibility to spread its values. This approach often led to paternalistic policies toward countries considered less developed.
By 1917, the U.S. had become a major world power with significant economic, political, and military influence. Its involvement in World War I would further solidify its global role, marking the end of American isolationism and the beginning of its ascent as a dominant force