bio lab practical

Classification Hierarchy - Domain, Supergroup, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species.

Binomial Nomenclature - Genus (capitalized), species (lowercase), e.g., Homo sapiens.

Clade (common ancestor & descendants).

Parsimony Principle - Simplest explanation is preferred.

Synapomorphy - Shared derived character of a clade.

Three Domains of Life - Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya.

Prokaryotes - Simple cell structure, no membrane-bound nucleus.

Bacteria Anatomy - No nucleus, cell wall, may have flagella.

Asexual Reproduction - Binary fission (one cell splits into two identical copies).

Gram-Positive Bacteria - Stain purple, thick peptidoglycan layer.

Gram-Negative Bacteria - Stain pink, thin peptidoglycan, outer envelope.

Bacterial Shapes - Coccus (spherical), Bacillus (rod-shaped), Spirillum (spiral), Vibrio (comma-shaped).

Bacterial Aggregations - Cyanobacteria with heterocysts (fix nitrogen) & vegetative cells (photosynthesis).

Bacterial Culture Methods - Non-selective media (grows all), Selective media (grows specific types).

16s rRNA Sequencing - Identifies unculturable bacteria.

Major Bacterial Phyla:

Spirochaetes - Corkscrew-shaped.

Actinobacteria - Gram-positive.

Cyanobacteria - Photosynthetic, nitrogen fixation, precursor to chloroplasts.

Proteobacteria - Gram-negative, origin of mitochondria.

Lab 3: Eukaryotic Supergroups and Protists

Eukaryotes - Complex cells with organelles and nucleus.

Supergroups of Eukaryotes:

Excavata - Unicellular, feeding groove, includes Euglenoids (photosynthetic/heterotrophic) and Kinetoplastids (parasitic).

Archaeplastida - Includes green algae (Volvox), red algae (phycoerythrin pigment).

Alveolata - Have alveoli, includes Ciliophora (ciliated), Apicomplexa (parasitic, malaria), Dinoflagellates (photosynthetic/heterotrophic, armored or unarmored).

Stramenopila - "Straw-haired" flagella, includes Diatoms (silica walls, photosynthetic), Brown algae (kelp, fucoxanthin pigment), Oomycetes (fungus-like, hyphae).

Rhizaria - Amoebas with filose pseudopodia, includes Radiolarians (silica, star-shaped) and Foraminifera (calcium carbonate shells).

Amoebozoa - Naked amoebas, pseudopodia movement, includes slime molds.

Opisthokonta - Single posterior flagellum, includes Choanoflagellates (collared flagellates), Fungi, and Animals.

Lab 4: Plant Evolution and Life Cycles

Sporophyte (2n) - Diploid, produces spores.

Gametophyte (n) - Haploid, produces gametes.

Alternation of Generations - Lifecycle alternating between sporophyte and gametophyte.

Embryophytes - All plants, zygote protected by maternal tissue.

Bryophytes - Non-vascular, gametophyte dominant.

Tracheophytes - Vascular plants, sporophyte dominant, xylem (water transport), phloem (sugar transport).

Lycophytes - Club moss (homosporous), Spike moss (heterosporous).

Pteridophytes - Ferns, whisk ferns, horsetails, homosporous spores.

Lab 5: Seed Plants (Spermatophytes)

Spermatophytes - Seed-producing plants, dispersal via wind, insects, or animals.

Gymnosperms - "Naked seeds," no fruit.

Cycadophyta - Coralloid roots, dioecious.

Ginkgophyta - Fan-shaped leaves, dioecious, single species.

Gnetophyta - Dioecious, non-flagellated sperm.

Coniferophyta - Evergreen, needle leaves, monoecious.

Angiosperms - Flowering plants, produce fruits.

Monocots - One cotyledon, petals in threes, parallel veins.

Eudicots - Two cotyledons, petals in 4s or 5s, branched veins.

Flower Structure:

Male Parts - Stamen (anther, filament).

Female Parts - Carpel (stigma, style, ovary).

Double Fertilization - Forms zygote (2n) and endosperm (3n) for nutrition.