10-Internal and External War
The Spread of War (1792–1793)
French Military Successes (Sept 1792–Jan 1793):
Army of the North had success in the Austrian Netherlands.
Army of the Alps seized Savoy and Nice, followed by parts of Piedmont-Sardinia, an Austrian ally.
Savoy annexed in Oct 1792, Nice and Monaco at the end of Jan 1793.
French forces advanced into the middle and upper Rhine, reaching Frankfurt, inspired by revolutionary idealism and France’s financial need.
The Strategic Motivation:
Conquests provided assets to be sold for cash.
Danton justified the war effort with the doctrine of "natural frontiers" in Jan 1793, claiming the Pyrenees, Alps, and Rhine as natural borders for France.
Britain and Spain Respond:
Britain began military preparations after Sept 1792, expelled the French ambassador post-Louis XVI's execution.
In Feb 1793, France declared war on Britain and the United Provinces. Spain joined the war against France in March.
The War of the First Coalition (1793):
In March 1793, France fought the First Coalition (Britain, Austria, Spain, and others). Early defeats followed.
March 1793: Austrian counter-offensive defeated French at Neerwinden and Louvain; French evacuate Aachen.
From April–July 1793, France suffered setbacks but kept facing both external enemies and internal revolts.
Notable Battles and Events:
Feb 1793: France declared war on Great Britain and the United Provinces. Rebellion in the Vendee begins.
March 1793: Austrian counteroffensive, defeats French at Neerwinden.
May–July 1793: Revolts spread in Lyons, Marseilles, Bordeaux, and other cities.
The Rising in Vendee (1793)
Background:
The Vendee was a rural, conservative, Catholic region with a high population of refractory priests.
Sale of Church lands led to new landowners raising rents, worsening conditions for peasants amidst inflation and food shortages.
The Uprising:
The rebellion began in March 1793 as a protest against the levy of 300,000 men.
A Catholic and Royal Army of the Vendée was formed, and Cholet was seized on 14 March.
Massacres of local officials, juring priests, and National Guards ensued.
Growth and Suppression:
By May 1793, 30,000 troops were sent to quell the uprising, but by June, the rebels controlled several cities, including Angers and Saumur.
By August, the National Convention declared the destruction of the Vendée.
In September, an army of 100,000 arrived at Nantes, gradually gaining control by October after defeats at Cholet.
December 1793: The core of the Vendéean resistance was crushed, leaving room for republican vengeance.
Robespierre and the Attempt to Establish Wartime Control (1793)
Context:
With the death of Louis XVI and Dumouriez's defection, the Republic faced both internal and external enemies.
To protect the Revolution, extraordinary measures were established.
Strengthening the Jacobins:
Robespierre and the Jacobins worked to consolidate power, weakening the Girondins.
The Committee of General Security (CGS) was created in Oct 1792 to manage policing and justice.
In Feb 1793, the levy of 300,000 men was ordered to bolster the army.
Revolutionary Measures:
82 représentants-en-mission were appointed in March 1793 to enforce loyalty, arrest suspects, supervise levies, and maintain public order.
April 1793: Committee of Public Safety (CPS) was established, reporting to the National Convention, and controlling military, diplomacy, and revolutionary laws.
March 1793: The Revolutionary Tribunal was created to try counter-revolutionaries.
March 1793: Comités de surveillance established in every commune to identify enemies of the revolution.
Internal Enforcement:
Revolutionary tribunals were empowered to execute suspects within 24 hours.
The CPS’s role was centralized, with closed meetings for secrecy to prevent leaks of plans to counter-revolutionaries.
The Fall of the Girondins and the Federalist Revolt (1793)
The Growing Discontent:
As war continued badly and prices rose, sans-culottes became more militant.
Calls for price controls were blocked by the National Convention.
February–March 1793: Disturbances in Paris, especially over food prices.
Robespierre vs. Girondins:
Robespierre used political advantage to discredit the Girondins by aligning with the sans-culottes.
Jean-Paul Marat attacked the Girondins in print, accusing them of profiteering.
On 12 April 1793, the Girondins called for Marat's arrest, but he was acquitted.
By 3 May 1793, sans-culottes surrounded the National Convention, demanding price controls on bread. Robespierre backed them and succeeded in establishing wheat price controls.
The Expulsion of the Girondins:
26 May 1793: Robespierre called for an uprising against corrupt deputies.
From 31 May to 2 June, thousands of sans-culottes and National Guards besieged the Convention, demanding the expulsion of Girondins.
On 2 June 1793, the Girondins were expelled, and many were placed under house arrest.
This shift gave power to the Montagnards (Robespierre's faction), but it also increased reliance on sans-culottes and armed force.
Federalist Revolt:
The expulsion of the Girondins ignited Federalist Revolts in regions loyal to them, especially in Lyons, Bordeaux, and Marseilles.
These revolts were not necessarily counter-revolutionary but were a reaction to the centralization of power in Paris.
June 1793: Revolts spread in 60 départements, with serious conflict in 8.
Toulon went further, with a royalist reaction calling for the return of Louis XVII. The Anglo-Spanish fleet aided in the revolt.
The siege of Toulon was conducted by Napoleon and resulted in its capture in December 1793.
Other revolts were suppressed between July and October, and représentants-en-mission restored control.