Memory

Long-term memory

Explicit memory - conscious recollection of information e.g. remembering phone number

Explicit - Events & Experiences

Semantic - Concepts & Facts

Implicit memory - unconsciously brought about e.g. writing or riding a bike

Procedural - How to do things

Priming - Stimulus exposure affects responses to a later stimulus

Emotional Conditioning - Classically conditioned emotional responses

Short-term memory/working memory

Auditory/Verbal Span

Visuospatial Span

For the purpose of the exam I will be focusing on visuospatial memory.

Memory studies usually from amnesia patients e.g. HM

anterograde amnesia - Cannot form new memories after amnesia onset

retrograde amnesia - Cannot remember past memories

*Medial Temporal Lobe → Hippocampus (spatial navigation; association)

Inferotemporal cortex - storage of viusal memory

amygdala - associated w/ emotions tied to memories

cerebellum - motor skills

striatum - stimulus and response/habit formation

Parietal Lobe

associated with visuo-spatial awareness, coordination and awareness of spatial orientation

also is primary sensory area for pain, touch and temperature

damage causes Agnosias and hemi spatial neglect

left parietal damage causes dyscalculia and some working memory problems

Glutamate: The main excitatory neurotransmitter, important

for learning and memory

Recall

Recognition

Relearning

working memory

Mnemonics, chunking, rehearsal

Memory - encode, store (& retain), and retrieve information

short term memory - limited capacity

Atkinson & Shiffrin’s Multi-Store Model (1968)

Classic model describes memory as a system with three distinct stores:

  1. Sensory Memory

Briefly holds incoming sensory information (visual, auditory, etc.) for a fraction of a second

  1. Short-Term Memory (STM)

Temporarily stores information for about 15-30 seconds and has a limited capacity (7 ± 2 items)

  1. Long-Term Memory (LTM)

Stores information indefinitely, with virtually unlimited capacity

Forgetting can occur due to decay, displacement, interference, retrieval failure

This model was foundational but too simplistic, leading to refinements like Baddeley & Hitch’s Working Memory Model (1974), which expanded on STM by introducing multiple components. The shift recognised that working memory is more than just passive storage, it actively processes and manipulates information in real time.

Baddeley & Hitch Working Memory Model (1974)

central executive - determines order, controls other components (PL and VSS) attend too and ignore. Directs attention and coordinates cognitive tasks

phonological loop - sensory storage system/processing sound-based (auditory) info (phonological store - inner ear - stores sound, focus on speech perception, repetition) (articulatory process (inner voice - rehearse sound - reading book)

visuo-spatial sketchpad (inner eye) - spatial and visual info (visual cache - stores visual data e.g. shape and colour) (Inner Scribe - records spatial arrangement and movement of objects and transfers it to central executive). Allows us to mentally manipulate images.

episodic buffer (interaction between working memory and long-term memory) integration of all components

KF case study - motorbike accident. short-term memory, verbal recall, could only remember 2 things from a list but visual could remember everything

criticism - visuo-spatial sketchpad - blind individuals (spatial awareness not dependent on vision e.g. can use touch. Wolbers et al.)

Visuospatial memory refers to the general ability to remember and recall visual and spatial information. This includes remembering locations, objects, faces, and how things are arranged in space over time. It involves both short-term and long-term memory. i.e. the whole storage system for visual and spatial details.

Short-term visuospatial memory involves briefly holding and recalling visual and spatial details, like remembering a phone number before dialling or temporarily keeping track of a set of objects

Long-term visuospatial memory stores visual and spatial information for extended periods - like remembering the layout of a childhood home, recognising faces, or recalling directions to familiar places.

Since it’s a broad cognitive function, different tasks engage various aspects of visuospatial memory, such as pattern recognition, navigation, and object-loccation memory.

Brain Regions (visuospatial memory)

Hippocampus: located in the medial temporal lobe, the hippocampus is essential for spatial navigation and memory formation. It helps create cognitive maps for navigating environments.

Parietal Lobe: Involved in visuospatial awareness, spatial coordination, and the processing of spatial orientation. Damage to this area can lead to difficulties in perceiving spatial relationships.

Inferotemporal Cortex: Responsible for storing visual memory, including object recognition and perception

Amygdala: Though primarily associated with emotions, it plays a role in linking emotional significance to spatial memories.

Cerebellum: Critical for coordinating movement and motor-related aspects of spatial memory.

Striatum: involved in habitat formation, stimulus-response associations, and reinforcement learning

Neurotransmitter

Glutamate - The powerhouse neurotransmitter behind learning and memory, including visuospatial memory

Glutamate is the brain’s main excitatory neurotransmitter, meaning it helps neurons communicate efficiently.

It plays a crucial role in synaptic plasticity, the process that allows neurons to strengthen connections based on experience, essential for memory formation.

The hippocampus, critical for spatial memory, relies heavily on glutamate to form and retrieve memories.

NMDA receptors, a type of glutamate receptor, are particularly involved in long-term potentiation (LTP), a mechanism where repeated stimulation strengthens synaptic connections, making memories more durable.

Glutamate also supports the parietal lobe, which handles spatial awareness and visuospatial coordination.

However, excessive glutamate activity can lead to neurotoxicity, potentially damaging neurons. That’s why the brain finely regulates its levels to ensure optimal cognitive function.

Glutamate is essentially the fuel that powers our ability to recognise places, recall spatial details, and interact with our environments effectively.

Interventions/Techniques to boost visuospatial memory:

  1. Mnemonics

Memory aids that use imagery and associations

creating vivid mental images can strengthen recall

e.g. the colours of the rainbow. Richard Of York Gave Battle In Vain (ROYGBIV) red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet

  1. Chunking

Breaking down large amounts of information into smaller, meaningful groups

e.g. phone numbers

  1. The Method of Loci (Memory Palace)

One of the most powerful visuospatial techniques.

It involves associating information with specific locations in an imagined space (like your home).

e.g. If you need to remember a shopping list, imagine placing items in familiar spots in your house

  1. Mind Mapping

A visual organisation method

Drawing out concepts in a diagram can enhance spatial recall

e.g. sketching relationships between ideas when studying

  1. Visual Association

Linking new information with familiar visuals

e.g. to remember someone’s name, picture an object that rhymes with it

  1. Spatial Reasoning Games & Activities

Engaging in puzzles, mazes, and navigation tasks

e.g. playing games like chess, Tetris, or memory card matching can strengthen spatial skills

  1. Meditation & Focus Training

Helps with cognitive clarity and awareness of spatial surroundings

e.g. mindfulness exercises can improve mental imagery and concentration

External (e.g. alarms) and internal memory (e.g. writing, chunking, etc.) aids

Daily Functioning

Visuospatial memory plays a huge role in daily functioning, influencing tasks that require visual recognition, spatial awareness, and navigation

  1. Navigation & Wayfinding

Remembering routes, landmarks, and directions.

Using mental maps to find your way in familiar or new environments

  1. Object & Face recognition

Identifying people, places, and objects

Recognising familiar faces and distinguishing between similar-looking items

  1. Reading & Writing

Tracking words on a page

Organising letters and words spatially when writing

  1. Driving & Sports

    Judging distances, speeds, and spatial relationships e.g. London Taxi drivers

coordinating movements in sports or physical activities

  1. Problem-Solving & Creativity

Visualising solutions to puzzles or tasks

Designing layouts, artwork, or planning spatial arrangements

  1. Daily Tasks & Organization

Arranging furniture, packing bags, or organising items efficiently

Remembering where you placed objects (keys, phone, etc.)

If visuospatial memory is impaired, it can lead to:

  • Difficulty navigating (getting lost easily)

  • Trouble recognising faces (prosopagnosia)

  • Challenges in reading/writing (tracking words)

  • Poor spatial awareness (bumping into objects)

  • Issues with organisation (misplacing items frequently)

Research suggests that visuospatial memory declines with age, affecting mobility and cognitive function. However, training techniques like puzzles, visualisation exercises, and spatial reasoning games can help strengthen it.

Visual and Verbal Domains in Memory

Visual Memory: Helps store and recall images, spatial layouts, and object recognition. It is essential for navigation, facial recognition, and pattern recall.

Verbal Memory: Involves encoding and retrieving words, language-based information, and auditory details. It supports communication, learning and problem-solving.

Interestingly, research suggests that verbal encoding can enhance visual memory - naming objects or associating words with images improves recall. However, when visual and verbal tasks compete, they can interfere with each other, highlighting cross-domain limitations in working memory.

I will be focusing on the Brief Visuospatial Memory Test Revised (BVMT-R) and Traumatic Brain Injury