The Fall of the Aztec Empire: From Cortés' Arrival to Tenochtitlan's Conquest

The Aztec Empire Before Cortés' Arrival

At the beginning of 1519, the Aztec Empire was a dominant power in Mesoamerica. This empire, established in 1428, was initially an alliance of three city-states: Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan. Among these, Tenochtitlan quickly gained prominence, becoming notorious for its demands on tributary states. These subjugated communities were compelled to provide the Triple Alliance not only with raw materials but also with a consistent supply of prisoners for human sacrifice. While the exact number of sacrifices is not fully known, it is believed that during times of drought, thousands of lives could be ritually taken over a few days. Aztec warriors also engaged in "flower wars" specifically to capture individuals for sacrifice, and some members of the Aztec aristocracy reportedly practiced cannibalism with the victims' bodies.

Life in Tenochtitlan, however, was not solely defined by these gruesome practices. The city's inhabitants, known as the Mexica, held scholarship in high regard. Tenochtitlan housed several extensive libraries containing manuscripts on diverse subjects, including religion, genealogies, government, and geography.

Hernán Cortés' Expedition and Early Challenges

The pivotal event that dramatically reshaped Mesoamerican history occurred in February 1519 when Hernán Cortés led several hundred conquistadors to the Gulf of Mexico. Their objective was to find legendary cities rumored to possess vast amounts of gold. Cortés' expedition was preceded by two others, but his journey was marked by controversy from its inception. He defied the Cuban Governor Diego Velázquez, who had revoked his expeditionary charter at the last moment. Ignoring the order, Cortés committed an act of mutiny by setting sail for Mesoamerica, fully aware that failure could result in imprisonment or death. The absolute necessity of success drove his actions.

Key Translators and Strategic Alliances

During their journey to the Yucatán Peninsula, the conquistadors encountered Gerónimo de Aguilar, a shipwrecked Spaniard who had learned to speak Mayan. He was immediately enlisted as Cortés' personal translator. Aguilar proved invaluable during peace negotiations with the Panin, a Mayan city-state. As an offering of peace, the Mayans presented Cortés with 20 slaves, one of whom was a woman fluent in both Mayan and Nahuatl, the Aztec language. This woman, who would come to be known as La Malinche, formed a critical linguistic bridge alongside Aguilar, enabling Cortés to communicate with the Aztec people effectively. Equipped with the advantage of language, alongside superior steel weaponry and gunpowder, the Spaniards proceeded toward their ultimate destination.

Establishment of Vera Cruz and Initial Deception

Upon arrival, Cortés shrewdly declared the establishment of Villa de la Vera Cruz, marking what was purportedly the first Spanish colony in Mesoamerica. In reality, Vera Cruz served primarily as a legal maneuver, allowing Cortés to exploit Spanish law to escape the jurisdiction of Governor Velázquez. Cortés's presence did not go unnoticed, and his party was soon greeted by representatives of the Aztec Emperor Moctezuma. Despite their seemingly non-hostile demeanor, Cortés understood that these formalities would likely be brief and was acutely aware of his significant numerical disadvantage.

Fortunately for the Spaniards, the often-brutal Aztec rule had alienated many of their tributaries. Communities like the Totonac Confederacy were readily convinced to turn against their resented overlords. Learning of the Spanish-Totonac alliance, Moctezuma perceived a threat and dispatched more ambassadors bearing gifts of gold and cloth. This was a doomed attempt to appease the Spaniards, monitor their movements, and crucially, discourage them from visiting Tenochtitlan. However, Cortés was emboldened by the lavish gifts and ordered a daring march toward the capital. This was an all-or-nothing venture for Cortés, and to ensure his men's unwavering loyalty, he famously scuttled his ships before setting off, eliminating any possibility of retreat.

The Tlaxcalan Conflict and the Cholula Massacre

Violence erupted when Tlaxcalan warriors began harassing the Spanish column as it traversed their territory. The conflict escalated, with Spanish camps attacked by day and Cortés' men raiding Tlaxcalan villages by night, lasting for 18 days of brutal warfare. This cost the Spanish half of their cavalry and a fifth of Cortés' men. Ultimately, Cortés convinced the Tlaxcalans that they shared a common enemy in the Aztecs. The Tlaxcalans harbored deep resentment towards the Aztec Empire, which had conquered much of their land through nearly a century of yearly "flower wars." Seeing an opportunity for retribution, the Tlaxcalans ceased hostilities and joined the march to Tenochtitlan.

The violence, however, did not subside there. Before reaching Tenochtitlan, the Spanish and their Tlaxcalan allies marched on the city of Cholula, an important religious center that had previously been allied with Tlaxcala before switching allegiance to the Aztecs. Over several days, they massacred Cholula's civilian population. The precise reasons for this massacre remain debated, possibly stemming from the Tlaxcalans' desire to eliminate a political rival and the Spanish intent to send a clear message to other cities about the consequences of not allying with them.

Arrival in Tenochtitlan and Moctezuma's Capitulation

By the first week of November, the surviving conquistadors finally beheld Tenochtitlan, a colossal city with over 300,000 inhabitants, dwarfing most European cities of its time. The sight of its canals, bustling neighborhoods, and imposing temples and palaces filled the Spaniards with awe, prompting some to question if they were dreaming. Having failed to deter Cortés, Moctezuma felt compelled to invite him into his palace. There, the conquistadors discovered a secret room containing Moctezuma's vast treasure: an astounding collection of golden objects, jewels, plates, and ingots.

With the rumored treasure trove located, Cortés pressured Moctezuma, demanding permission for his men to erect a cross and an image of the Virgin Mary beside two significant Aztec idols. This provocative request naturally caused considerable uproar among the Mexica, leading to a violent eruption that claimed the lives of 7 Spaniards. Recognizing the perilous nature of their situation, Cortés retaliated by placing Moctezuma under house arrest within the palace, effectively seizing personal control over the city. With the emperor held hostage, the Spaniards hoped to deter further Aztec resistance. Moctezuma, for his part, initially maintained a policy of diplomacy and peace, firmly refusing his chieftains' advice to attack the conquistadors. He eventually permitted Cortés' men to construct a Catholic altar in the temple – a stark indication that the once-mighty emperor had been reduced to a mere puppet of Cortés.

Narváez's Intervention and Alvarado's Massacre in Tenochtitlan

Simultaneously, a significant development unfolded to the east: 900 conquistadors under Pánfilo de Narváez landed, under orders from Governor Velázquez, with the objective of apprehending Cortés. Upon receiving this news, Cortés assembled his elite troops and departed to confront Narváez, leaving Pedro de Alvarado and a small garrison in charge of Tenochtitlan. This decision would prove catastrophic. Alvarado, known for his cruelty and short temper, held little patience and even less respect for the Aztec people.

On May 22, 1520, Moctezuma requested permission to celebrate an Aztec festival that included human sacrifice. Alvarado and his men brutally interrupted the festivities, slaughtering nearly all the largely unarmed warriors and noblemen inside the Great Temple. Alvarado's forces claimed they acted to prevent human sacrifice, while survivors countered that the Spaniards had been driven to a frenzy by the sight of gold jewelry worn by the attendees. Learning of the massacre, Moctezuma once more urged for calm and ordered his people to stand down. However, the Aztecs had reached their breaking point and rose in revolt.

Cortés' Triumph Over Narváez and the "Night of Sorrows"

Meanwhile, to the east, Cortés had successfully ambushed Narváez, ordering a nighttime attack. His combined force of 250 Spaniards and 200 natives decisively defeated Narváez's numerically superior army, which included cavalry and artillery. In a final insult to Governor Velázquez, Cortés then persuaded the survivors to join his ranks with promises of boundless Aztec riches. Returning to Tenochtitlan, Cortés found Alvarado's men under siege within the palace. Acting swiftly, Cortés commanded Moctezuma to address his people in a desperate, ultimately futile, attempt to restore peace and allow the Spaniards to withdraw peacefully. This plea, however, only intensified the fury. Cheers erupted from the crowd as Moctezuma was met with a barrage of stones and darts. His people had forsaken their emperor and had, in fact, already chosen his successor, Cuauhtémoc.

Moctezuma tragically succumbed to the assault, though the Aztecs later alleged he was killed by the Spaniards once his usefulness had ended. With their crucial bargaining chip gone and supplies rapidly diminishing, Cortés realized time was running out. He ordered his men to attempt a breakout under the cover of a welcome rainstorm, laden with as much gold and treasure as they could carry, winding through the sleeping city. However, they were soon discovered, and the alarm was sounded. A throng of Aztecs emerged from their homes to attack the fleeing column, while hundreds in canoes harried Cortés' men as they fought their way across the causeway leading out of the city. Many soldiers, weighed down by their equipment and the coveted treasure, lost their footing and drowned in the lake.

Cortés, leading a vanguard of horsemen, initially was well ahead of the group, leaving the rest to fend for themselves. Upon reaching safety at the village of Tacuba, he had a change of heart and turned back to aid those still fighting. Along the way, he found a severely wounded Alvarado with a group of Spaniards and Tlaxcalans. According to the conquistador Díaz del Castillo, it was at this moment that Cortés broke down in tears during the bloody retreat. An estimated 400 to 800 Spaniards were killed, drowned, or captured, while approximately 1,000 Tlaxcalans suffered the same grim fate. In terms of equipment, all artillery and most horses were lost, leaving the exhausted and largely wounded survivors to contend with only what they had managed to carry.

Aftermath: The Night of Sorrows, Otumba, and Smallpox

Cortés' alleged sorrow at this tragedy cemented the event in Spanish and Mexican history as the "Night of Sorrows." Despite their apparent weakness, Cortés' men were far from defeated. About a week later, the Aztecs launched another attack at Otumba, intending a decisive blow. However, their victory during the Night of Sorrows had made them overconfident, and the Spaniards' skilled use of cavalry and strategic targeting of known leaders ultimately caused the Aztec army to scatter. Having repelled his pursuers, Cortés withdrew his remaining forces to the relative safety of Tlaxcala to recuperate and reorganize. Though defeated on the battlefield, the Aztecs had regained control of their capital. This triumph, however, would be short-lived, as a far more lethal and insidious enemy, smallpox, was soon to arrive.

Having no prior exposure to this disease, the vulnerable Aztecs were defenseless. Thousands perished in rapid succession, including the new emperor Cuauhtémoc. By the end of 1520, it is estimated that smallpox had claimed the lives of some 8 million people in the region now known as Mexico.

The Final Siege of Tenochtitlan and Its Fall

After recovering from their losses at the Night of Sorrows and the Battle of Otumba, Cortés' forces were reinforced by more native allies, notably from Texcoco, and set off for Tenochtitlan once again in early 1521. Fully aware of the Aztec Empire's weakened state, the Spanish leaders undoubtedly anticipated a swift victory. To their surprise, however, the city's stubborn defenders refused to yield.

Frustrated by the prolonged resistance, the Spaniards commandeered Tlaxcalan laborers to construct cannon-mounted brigantines to assert control over the lake surrounding the city. On May 10, the portable water supply to Tenochtitlan was cut off, yet by the end of June, the defenders remained resolute. Various attempts to end the siege through diplomatic means failed. Running out of patience, Cortés ordered a massive assault on the city to capture the market of Tlatelolco, but his men were repelled by heavy resistance. Cortés himself was captured during the fighting and narrowly escaped with his life thanks to his men's intervention. Brutal urban combat and fanatical resistance continued until the remaining defenders made their final stand at Plaza Mayor, where they ultimately surrendered on August 13th.

Legacy of the Conquest

The reign of Cuauhtémoc, the last Aztec emperor, ended when he was captured attempting to flee the city by canoe. The catastrophe that befell Tenochtitlan did not conclude with its surrender; the victorious Spaniards and their native allies ruthlessly sacked the city in their relentless search for gold and revenge. For the astounding success of his valiant expedition, Cortés was richly rewarded by the Holy Roman Emperor Charles I, who appointed him Captain General of the Viceroyalty of New Spain in October of 1522. Cortés' audacious gamble had paid off; the mutinous soldier became a hero of Spain. Within just two short years, Hernán Cortés' relatively small group of conquistadors had managed to vanquish an empire.

The sheer scale and treasure acquired during the Aztec expedition would not be surpassed until the 1532 conquest of the Incan Empire in modern-day Peru. However, as demonstrated, Cortés' conquest was far from a simple military affair. Beyond the Spaniards' technological and tactical superiority, crucial factors included the vital support of numerous native allies, Moctezuma's excessive caution and inaction, and the devastating impact of the smallpox epidemic. All these elements collectively contributed to the rapid downfall of the Aztec Empire. Its collapse marked the beginning of further Spanish conquests in the region, ultimately leading to Spanish control over the entirety of Mesoamerica. This conquest, in turn, was followed by the mass conversion of indigenous peoples to Catholicism, and before long, intermarriage between ethnic Spaniards and natives became common, laying the foundation for the modern Mexican nation.