Comprehensive Study Notes: Abnormal Psychology and Research Methods (Lecture Transcript)

Course Information

• Textbook: Abnormal Psychology (14th ed) by Kring & Johnson
• Focus: science and pseudoscience in clinical psychology
• Assessments: Quizzes, Tests
  • Tests open after class
  • All tests contribute up to 20% of final grade
• Careers mentioned: Psychologist, Psychiatrist, Counselor
• Key distinction: Psychology as the science of behavior and mental processes; understand limits of diagnosis and treatment
• Note on terminology: Psychology vs Psycology (terminology may vary in slides)

Psychological Perspectives

• Sigmund Freud referenced within Psychoanalytic perspective
• Major viewpoints (as listed in the transcript):
  • Neuroscience Perspective: study of brain and body as basis for experiences; explores how emotions, memories, and sensory experiences arise; emphasizes biological underpinnings and possible unconscious processes
  • Evolutionary Perspective: natural selection favors traits that increase genetic fitness; behavior and mental processes viewed through adaptation and survival value
  • Cognitive Perspective: processing, storage, retrieval of information; logical reasoning; computation-like models (similar to computer science); how information processing shapes behavior
  • Behavioral Perspective: focus on observable responses and learning mechanisms
  • Psychoanalytic Perspective: unconscious conflicts and drives as determinants of behavior
  • Socio-cultural Perspective: how culture, social context, and norms shape behavior
• Causality note: Distinguish CAUSAL from CASUALA (causal vs non-causal factors)
• The transcript emphasizes that perspectives provide different explanations for behavior, often addressing:
  • Nature vs nurture
  • Determinants of behavior across contexts
  • How perspective informs assessment and treatment

Research Methods and Evidence Bases

• Key methods in abnormal psychology research:
  • Case Studies: Scientific study of a single person or very small group with shared characteristics; rich detail but limited generalizability
  • Naturalistic Observation: behavior studied in participants’ natural environments rather than in a laboratory; high external validity but less experimental control
  • Surveys: asking people for information (paper, online, or in person); useful for descriptive data
  • Correlational Studies: examine relationships between two or more variables; correlation indicating association but not causation
  • Experiments (Experimental Method): designed to test causal relationships; involves manipulation and control
• Core distinctions:
  • Correlation does not imply causation; two variables can be related without one causing the other
  • Causal evidence often requires experimental manipulation and random assignment

Theory, Hypotheses, and Variables

• Theory: broad set of assumptions about the relationships among two or more things
• Hypothesis: specific, testable question derived from theory
• Key components of an experiment:
  • Independent Variable (IV): the causal variable that is manipulated by the researcher
  • Dependent Variable (DV): the outcome measured
  • Experimental Group: receives the IV
  • Control Group: does not receive the IV (or receives a baseline comparison condition)
• Example provided in notes (handwritten notes vs typed notes):
  • Theory: Handwritten note-taking improves learning outcomes
  • Hypothesis: Subjects who take notes by hand will perform better on a test than those who take notes on a computer
  • IV: Method of note-taking (handwritten vs computer)
  • DV: Test performance
• Additional study design concepts:
  • Random Sampling: randomly selecting participants from the population to represent the whole
  • Random Assignment: randomly assigning selected participants to Experimental and Control groups to ensure equivalence at the start
  • General population vs sample: population is all members of the group of interest; sample is a subset used for the study
  • Data collection and analysis: measuring the DV across groups to determine if there is a statistically significant difference
  • Conclusions: infer from data whether the difference is meaningful and report to enable replication
• Vocab recap:
  • Theory vs Hypothesis distinction
  • Independent Variable (causal variable) and Dependent Variable (measured variable)
• Experimental validity terms:
  • External Validity: extent to which results generalize to the real world
  • Random Selection vs Random Assignment: crucial for generalizability and causal inference

Paradigms in Psychopathology

• Paradigm: a conceptual framework guiding how scientists conceive and study a subject
• How paradigms influence:
  • What problems are studied
  • How data are gathered and interpreted
• Categories of Psychological Disorders (as overviewed):
  • Anxiety Disorders
  • Somatoform Disorders (bodily symptoms without a clear medical cause)
  • Dissociative Disorders
  • Mood Disorders (e.g., depression, bipolar)
  • Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders
  • Personality Disorders
• DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders) sources:
  • Provides lists of symptoms for diagnosis and information on prevalence
  • Does not provide causes or treatment recommendations
• Intern’s Syndrome: tendency to self-diagnose based on information read about disorders
• Important criterion definitions for mental disorders (as listed):
  • Atypical: not common in the population
  • Disturbing: thoughts or behaviors seem odd to others
  • Maladaptive: disrupts functioning or harms self or others
  • Unjustifiable: lacks rational justification
• Historical note on homosexuality: removal from DSM in the 1970s (often cited as 1973)
• History of treatment and care:
  • Dorothea Dix (1802–1887) advocated for humane treatment of the mentally ill; campaigned for better living conditions and rights; influenced reform toward humane state custody and humane treatment

History and Treatment of Psychological Disturbances

• Early treatments: often inhumane, restraint and confinement rather than cure
• Reform movements: advocate for humane treatment and rights for patients
• Legacy: movement toward more ethical standards and improved care in facilities

Categories of Psychological Disorders (Expanded)

• Anxiety Disorders
• Somatoform Disorders
• Dissociative Disorders
• Mood Disorders
• Schizophrenia and Other Psychotic Disorders
• Personality Disorders
• Note: The slides categorize disorders and indicate symptom-based listings rather than etiologies or treatment approaches

DSM, Symptoms, and Self-Diagnosis Considerations

• DSM provides symptom checklists for diagnosis; not a treatment guide
• Self-diagnosis risk: Intern’s syndrome—the tendency to diagnose oneself from symptoms described in lay or academic materials
• Caution: Diagnosis requires clinical assessment and professional judgment

Historical and Ethical Context in Psychopathology

• Historical treatments often lacked ethical considerations; reform led to humane care concepts
• Ethical implications include patient rights, consent, and humane treatment in care settings

Experimental Design: Placebo and Blinding

• Placebo: an inactive intervention that can nonetheless produce perceived or actual effects due to expectations
• Placebo effect: improvement attributed to expectations rather than to the active properties of the treatment
• Blinding: methodological technique to reduce bias by keeping participants or researchers unaware of group assignment
• Use of placebo and blinding helps control for expectancy effects and other confounds

Quick Reference: Key Concepts and Terms

• Theory: broad framework of ideas about relationships between variables
• Hypothesis: testable prediction derived from theory
• Independent Variable (IV): manipulated cause
• Dependent Variable (DV): measured effect
• Experimental Group: receives IV
• Control Group: comparison group without IV
• Random Sampling: random selection from population to participate in the study
• Random Assignment: random allocation of participants to groups
• External Validity: applicability of findings to real-world settings
• Internal Validity: the degree to which the study establishes a causal relationship
• Correlation: association between two or more variables
• Causation: one variable causing changes in another (requires experimental manipulation)
• Third Variable Problem: a third factor may account for the observed relationship between two variables
• Stanford Prison Experiment note: historical example discussed; described as lacking a formal hypothesis in some summaries
• DSM: diagnostic criteria and symptom lists for mental disorders; not etiologies or treatments
• Intern’s Syndrome: self-diagnosis based on information encountered
• Dorothea Dix: historical advocate for humane treatment of mentally ill

Key Formulas (LaTeX)

• Correlation coefficient (r):
  r = rac{ ext{cov}(X,Y)}{\sigmaX \, \sigmaY}
• Null and alternative hypotheses (typical formalism in experiments):
  H0: ext{the null hypothesis} \ H1: ext{the alternative hypothesis}
• Note: In context, these formal notations are standard conceptual tools derived from the theory-to-hypothesis pipeline described in the notes