kingdoms of the savanna, kingdoms of the forest (11/07)

KINGS OF THE SAVANNA AND KINGS OF THE FOREST

Savanna

• The savanna ecosystems in Africa are crucial habitats that support diverse wildlife.

Elevation Data of Africa

• Detailed elevation raster representation from a Digital Chart of the World (DCW).

• Political boundaries and hydrology included in a $30$ arc-second cell size format.

• Approximate Scale: $1:35,520,000$.

Elevation Ranges (in meters)

• Elevation bands for various ranges:

  • $1-150$

  • $101-200$

  • $251-300$

  • $301-400$

  • $401-500$

  • $501-600$

  • $601-700$

  • $701-900$

  • $901-1100$

  • $1101-1400$

  • $1401$ & greater

Major Ethnic Groups in Africa

• Fulani: Primarily found in West Africa, known for their cattle herding culture.

• Berber: Indigenous to North Africa, historically known for their trade and nomadic lifestyles. The Berber word ifri (plural ifran) means “cave” (cave dwellers), reflecting historical dwelling patterns.

• Songhay: An ethnic group and historical empire in West Africa.

• Hausa: A major ethnic group in West Africa, involved in trade and agriculture.

• Yoruba: A significant ethnic group located in Nigeria, known for complex city-states.

• Igbo: Predominantly found in Nigeria, known for their rich cultural heritage.

• Other groups include Afro-Asiatic, Nilo-Saharan, Niger-Congo A, Niger-Congo B (Bantu), Khoi-San, Austronesian, Arabic, Amharic, Oromo, Lingala, Kongo, Swahili, Chewa, Shona, Sotho, Xhosa, Afrikaans (Indo-European).

The True Size of Africa

• Total Land Area: $30.4$ million km²

• Africa is approximately larger than the following regions:

  • Russia: $17.1$ million km²

  • United States: $9.8$ million km²

  • China: $9.6$ million km²

  • Brazil: $8.5$ million km²

  • Europe: $5.9$ million km² (excluding Russia)

  • India: $3.3$ million km²

Major Geographic Features of Africa

• Significant rivers and lakes:

  • Nile River: Africa's longest river.

  • Senegal River: Important for agriculture and fishing.

  • Niger River: Vital for West African ecology, pivotal for sub-Saharan states.

  • Zambezi River: Known for its waterfalls and biodiversity.

  • Lakes: Albert, Congo, Victoria, Tanganyika, Nyasa.

Climate Classification

• Köppen-Geiger Climate Classification (1980-2016):

  • Tropical, rainforest (Af)

  • Tropical, monsoon (Am)

  • Tropical, savannah (Aw)

  • Arid, desert, hot (BWh)

  • Arid, steppe, hot (BSh)

  • Temperate climates with various conditions (Csa, Csb, etc.)

  • Cold climates classified as Polar (ET, EF)

  • Source: Beck et al. (2018) Scientific Data

• Köppen-Geiger Climate Classification (2071-2100): Projection of future climate conditions retaining similar classifications as the current data.

Temperature Changes in Africa

• Notable changes in temperature significant for climate patterns in the continent from $1901$ to $2020$.

Disease Belt in Sub-Sahara

• The presence of diseases like trypanosomiasis, or “African sleeping sickness,” transmitted by the tsetse fly bite, historically impacted population distribution and trade.

• Goods were often carried by local porters and merchants with disease-resistant genes, influencing early trade logistics.

Pre-Modern West African Civilizations

• Overview of major civilizations, often located within four horizontal geographic zones that influenced trans-Saharan and savanna-rainforest trade networks:

  • Ghana Empire: Centered around trade involving gold and salt. It was a Soninke state built on farming and trade, ruled by an absolute king with a clear social hierarchy. Trade goods included salt, copper, iron, and gold, transported via caravans. Islam arrived with trade diaspora, leading to an Arab/Berber mix of cultures. Koumbi Saleh served as its wealthy capital, featuring royal palaces and robust commerce, earning Ghana the title "Land of Gold," with Islam imported through trade.

  • Mali Empire: Known for wealth, particularly from gold and its prominent leaders.

  • Songhay Empire: Established after the decline of Mali, significant for trade and culture.

• Trans-Saharan trade networks facilitated cultural exchanges across these zones.

Sedentary Life on Middle Niger

• Earliest agriculture included rice, millet, and sorghum from $3000$ BCE.

• The Big Dry (300 BCE - 300 CE): A period of massive population influx and extremely complex ethnic makeup in the Niger Bend due to climatic changes.

• Hippopotamus hunting and spear fishing were also significant early subsistence practices along the Niger River.

Before Trans-Saharan Trade

• Early societies included:

  • Berber Pastoral Nomads: Engaged in traditional herding and migratory practices in the north.

  • Farming Communities: Established agriculture south of the Sahara by $3000$ BCE.

  • Rock drawings of ox-carts dating to $500$ BCE indicate early transport methods.

  • Farmers often traded salt for gold from forest regions, establishing early exchange networks.

  • Many "stateless" communities existed alongside emergent polities.

  • Trade systems evolving, using barter systems involving salt and gold, with references to Roman trading outposts like Carthage by $300$ CE, where a Roman mint was also active.

• Two significant North African trade routes developed between approximately $400$-$1200$ CE.

Arab Conquest and Islamization of North Africa (c. 700-900 CE)

• Notable historical expansion of Islam influenced by Arabic traders and the Berber tribes.

• The cultural amalgamation in the Maghreb ("the west") region is emphasized.

The Camel and Trade Revolution

• Effect of camels on trade routes enhancing the movement of goods in the Sahara, leading to the "dis-invention" of the wheel for long-distance transport.

• Resilience and adaptability of African trade networks during this era, marked by the transition from wheel to camel transport.

Timbuktu (c. 1200 CE)

• Originally a nomad summer camp along the Niger River, it developed into a major trade center, characterized by its distinctive adobe buildings.

• It amassed fabulous fortunes primarily from the gold trade, although historical debate exists regarding potential "ethnic segregation" within the city.

• Timbuktu became a glorious center of Islamic studies, boasting numerous madrasas, extensive manuscript collections, and vast libraries, attracting up to $25,000$ students.

• The Great Mosque of Timbuktu stands as a testament to its architectural and religious significance.

Sahara-Savanna-Forest Trade Dynamics

• This trade network facilitated the movement of a range of goods:

  • Metal, weapons, horses, cloth, and cowrie shells typically headed south.

  • Slaves, pepper, and gold primarily went north.

• Trade was deeply intertwined with religion, leading to the intermingling of commercial and Islamic cultural influences throughout West Africa.

• Islamic kingdoms built on these extensive trade networks were instrumental in creating a pre-modern world system.

Mali Empire Details

• Timeline: c. $1250$-$1650$ CE, marked by significant gold trade activities.

• Founded by the Mandinka people, it emerged as a separate kingdom from the Ghana Empire, with its origins chronicled in the Epic of Sundiata Keita.

• Population: Approximately $40$ million, comprising dozens of ethnic groups across an empire stretching roughly $1500$ miles east to west, making it one of the largest empires of its time, second only to the Mongol Empire in sheer size.

• Governance under an Islamic dynasty, centered in its capital, Niani. The empire was largely decentralized, with an army ruling numerous towns and small villages.

• Mansa Musa (c. 1300): Renowned for his pilgrimage to Mecca, which showcased the empire's immense wealth.

• Cultural Impact: Flourishing arts, architecture, and Islam spread throughout the empire, exemplified by structures like the majestic Mosque at Djenné.

Songhay Empire Overview

• Timeline: c. $1450$-$1600$ CE.

• Originating from Middle Niger River fishers and hunters, it transitioned to significant trade in food and salt.

• The region's ecology provided good conditions for horses, which proved crucial for military and trade control.

• Under the Askia dynasty, supported by eunuchs, the empire established a strong military presence and centralized authority, using both horses and canoes to control vital trade routes.

• An important center of Afro-Islamic culture in Gao.

• Trade goods also included kola nuts.

The Savanna Meets Rain Forest

• The intersection of savanna and rainforest ecosystems gave rise to vital trading states along the Bight of Benin.

• Begho: A major market town located in modern Ghana, serving as a key node in these trade networks.

• Kingdom of Benin: Situated in present-day Nigeria, where the Oba dynasty united various tribes of the Niger Delta.

• Bronzes of Benin: Renowned for their exquisite artistry, these artifacts attest to the sophisticated cultural and economic life of the Kingdom of Benin.

• The phrase "a fist full of shells" refers to historical economic exchange and purchasing power, often used in discussions about Africa’s historical economic dynamics and contemporary inequality.

Cultural and Economic Exchange

• Trade routes facilitated interaction between different cultures, exchanging commodities such as metal, textiles, and slaves.

Portuguese Exploration (c. 1450 CE)

• Emergence of the Portuguese in African maritime exploration, primarily driven by the search for gold, new trade routes, and resources.

• They introduced new labels like "Black Moors" for Africans and engaged in Catholic missionary activities.

• Complex relationships between emerging European powers and African kingdoms, involving trade, diplomacy, and fierce competition with other European nations like Spain.

• The Portuguese often obtained slaves, typically prisoners of war, from established African kingdoms, challenging the simplified narrative of "savage to slave" and highlighting the existing social structures and conflicts within Africa.

Christianity and Islam in Africa

• The enduring impact of both religions on social structures and cultural identities of African societies, shaping the socio-political landscape throughout history.

Slave Trade Dynamics

• Analysis of main sources of slaves during the Medieval Age, focusing on trade routes and the role of various ethnic kingdoms.

• Connections to contemporary issues of inequality and historical narratives of slavery.