Chapter 19 States and Societies in Sub-Saharan Africa
Agriculture & herding spread gradually throughout sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) from 2000 BCE–1000 CE through a process known as the Bantu migrations. After about 500 BCE the knowledge of iron metallurgy was also disseminating throughout Africa. As a result of these movements, of the introduction of new nutritious foods such as bananas, and of long-distance trade, the population of Africa grew dramatically, and increasingly complex forms of government began to emerge. Most sub-Saharan African cultures were kin-based and organized into relatively small villages that were loosely allied into districts governed by a chief. Occasionally larger and more structured kingdoms and empires appeared. These larger states generally consolidated their position through controlling long-distance trade in their regions. In general, the history of 1000–1500 CE SSA is noted for:
• The introduction and widespread dissemination of the Islamic religion. In many cases the belief in Islam supplemented rather than supplanted traditional religious practices. Some sub-Saharan societies became important centers of worship and learning in the Islamic world.
• A regular & reliable flow of trade goods: gold, ivory, & slaves being the most important exports. These networks were both overland (particularly notable were trans-Saharan camel caravan routes) and maritime, where E African city-states became important stops on the Indian Ocean seaways.
• The emergence & growth of states that became highly influential in the cross-cultural interactions of this period. The states of Kongo, Zimbabwe, Ghana, Mali, & the Swahili city-states became trade & religious centers whose fortunes were clearly tied into those of Eurasia.
1. Effects of Early African Migrations
A. Agriculture and Population Growth
1) Bantu and other migrations from 2000 BCE—1000 CE
a. Spread agriculture & herding throughout Africa
b. Displaced and/or absorbed hunting/gathering/fishing people
c. Iron metallurgy after 500 BCE facilitated clearing more land
d. Yams, sorghum, & millet cultivated
e. Intro of bananas after 500 CE ü migration & population surge
2) Pop growth: from 3.5 million in 400 BCE to 22 million by 1000 CE
B. African Political Organization
1) Kin-based society the norm (sometimes called “stateless society”)
a. Early societies did not depend on elaborate bureaucracy
b. Societies governed through family & kinship groups
c. Village council consisted of male family heads
d. Chief of a village was from the most prominent family head
e. A group of villages constituted a district
f. Villages chiefs negotiated inter-village affairs
2) Chiefdoms
a. Population growth strained resources & increased conflict
b. Some communities began to organize military forces, 1000 CE
c. Powerful chiefs overrode kinship networks, imposed authority & conquered (e.g. Ife & Benin)
3) Kingdom of Kongo
a. Villages formed small states along the Congo River, c. 1000 CE
b. Small states formed several larger principalities, 1200 CE
c. Kongo overcame its neighbors & built kingdom
d. Maintained a centralized gov’t w/ a royal currency system
e. Provided effective organization until the mid-17 century
2. Islamic Kingdoms and Empires
A. Trans-Saharan Trade and Islamic States in West Africa
1) After 300 CE camels replaced horses & donkeys as transport
a. Camels’ arrival quickened pace of communication
b. Islamic merchants crossed desert & established relations
2) Kingdom of Ghana = most important commercial site in W Africa
a. Provided gold, ivory, & slaves for traders from N Africa
b. Exchanged for horses, cloth, manufactured goods, & salt
c. Capital city of Ghana = thriving commercial center
d. Ghana kings converted to Islam by 10th Century, didn’t force on others
e. Nomadic raids from Sahara weakened Ghana in early 13th Century
3) Sundiata, (“Lion Prince”) built Mali empire (reigned 1230-55 CE)
4) Mali empire & trade
a. Controlled & taxed almost all trade passing through W Africa
b. Enormous caravans linked Mali to N Africa
c. Besides the capital Niani, many other prosperous cities
5) Mansa Musa, Sundiata’s grandnephew (reigned 1312-1337 CE)
a. Made his pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324-1325 w/ huge caravan
b. Upon return to Mali, built mosques
c. Sent students to study w/ distinguished scholars in N Africa
d. Established Islamic schools in Mali
6) Decline of Mali: factions & neighbors/nomads military pressure
7) The Songhay empire replaced Mali by the late 15th Century
B. The Indian Ocean Trade and Islamic States in East Africa
1) Swahili is an Arabic term meaning “coasters”
a. Dominated E African coast from Mogadishu to Sofala
b. Spoke Swahili (a Bantu language) supplemented w/ Arabic
c. Trade w/ Muslim merchants became important by 10th Century
2) The Swahili city-states
a. Chiefs gained power through taxing trade on ports
b. Ports developed into city-states governed by kings, 11th & 12th Centuries
3) Kilwa: good example of busy city-state on E coast; exported gold
4) Zimbabwe was powerful kingdom of E Africa
a. By 9th Century, chiefs built stone residences (Zimbabwe)
b. Magnificent stone complex, “Great Zimbabwe” in 12th
Century
c. 18,000 people lived in Great Zimbabwe by 1500 CE
d. Kings organized flow of gold, ivory, & slaves
5) Islam in E Africa
a. Ruling elite & wealthy merchants converted to Islamic faith
b. Conversion promoted close cooperation w/ Muslim merchants, & opened door to political
alliances w/ Muslim rulers
3. African Society and Cultural Development
A. Social Classes
1) Diversity of societies: villages, kingdoms, empires, city-states
2) Kinship groups: extended families & clans as social & economic organizations
a. Communities claimed rights to land; no private property
b. Village council allocated land to clan members
3) Sex & gender relations
a. Men undertook heavy labor
b. Women were responsible for child rearing, domestic chores
c. Men monopolized public authority, but women enjoyed high honor as the source of life
d. Aristocratic women could influence public affairs
e. Women merchants commonly traded at markets
f. Sometimes women organized all-female military units
g. Islam did little to curtail women’s opportunities in sub-Saharan Africa
4) Age grades: assumed appropriate responsibilities & tasks, age group formed tight circle of friends, later
allies
5) Slavery
a. Most slaves = captives of war, debtors, criminals
b. Worked as agricultural laborers or sold in slave markets
c. Slave trade increased after 9th Century
d. Mediterranean demand for slaves outstripped supply from E Europe, so sub-Saharan Africa increasingly became a source of slaves
e. Slave raids of large states against small states/villages
f. Precise statistics impossible, but best estimate is around 10 million slaves exported btwn 750–1500 CE (smaller than later Atlantic slave trade, but created a foundation/precedent)
B. African Religion
1) Creator god as source of world order
2) Lesser gods & spirits
a. Often associated w/ natural features
b. Intervened in the workings of the world
c. Believed in ancestors’ souls; had many rituals
3) Diviners mediated between humanity & supernatural beings
a. Interpreted the cause of the people’s misfortune
b. Used medicine or rituals to eliminate problems
c. African religion was not theological but practical
C. The Arrival of Christianity and Islam
1) Early Christianity in N Africa
a. Christianity reached N Africa during the 1st Century CE
b. Christian kingdom of Axum in Ethiopia (4th Century CE)
2) Ethiopian Christianity
a. Missionaries translated Bible & popularized Christianity there
b. Carved churches out of solid rock (rock churches)
c. Solomonic dynasty claimed descent from Israelite kings (13th Century)
3) African Islam
a. Appealed strongly to ruling elite & merchants of sub-Saharan Africa
b. Converts took their religion seriously; they built mosques & schools, invited experts
c. Accommodated African gender relations; women retained more freedoms
d. Supplemented rather than replaced traditional religions