Comprehensive Study Notes on Humanities, Art History, and Architectural Evolution
Defining the Humanities and Fine Arts
The humanities are defined as the study of art, culture, and the human experience. They are distinct from STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) fields in that they focus on the "why" of human existence rather than the "how." The humanities are considered essential for a whole educational experience and an enriched personal life. The greatest gift of this field is the way it teaches individuals to think both creatively and critically, seeking what the heart searches for and what it means to be human. This is particularly important for children's development. Within the humanities, the fine arts are categorized into three primary branches: visual arts, performing arts, and literary arts. The gifts provided by the humanities include the ability to admire beauty, the promotion of a love for language, and the capacity for "time travel" by looking at and learning about the past. Cultivating an understanding of the humanities helps an individual become well-rounded.
Leonardo da Vinci: The Renaissance Genius
Leonardo da Vinci is frequently cited as the quintessential "Renaissance man" and is ranked as the number genius in history. He is most famous for his paintings, the "Mona Lisa" and "The Last Supper." However, his extensive notebooks provide a deeper look into his genius, filled with information written in mirror script. These notebooks contain detailed drawings of the human body, displaying realistic anatomy, as well as forward-thinking sketches of planes and helicopters. His artistic style is characterized by the use of darker colors and a commitment to realistic anatomical representation.
Methods of Artistic Criticism: Formal vs. Contextual
When evaluating art, two primary methods of criticism are employed: formal and contextual. Formal criticism involves analyzing and interpreting an artwork based strictly on its formal properties, such as proportion and composition. In contrast, contextual criticism analyzes and interprets an artwork based on its historical and cultural context. This method seeks to understand what the artwork reveals about the specific time period in which it was created.
Categorizing Artistic Styles: Naturalism to Realism
There are infinite styles and ways to depict the world in art, categorized into four main types: naturalism, abstraction, idealization, and realism. Naturalism is characterized by visual lifelikeness; it is detailed and specific, appearing to imitate or copy nature by depicting objects precisely. Abstraction is the opposite; it is not lifelike and lacks specific details. Instead, it captures the essence of an object through distortion or reinterpretation, evoking a feeling rather than providing a description.
Idealization involves polishing, refining, and beautifying a subject according to subjective standards of beauty. It is often performative, polished, perfected, wishful, and sensationalized, meaning it is not always truthful to real experiences or circumstances. Realism, however, provides a raw, honest, believable, factual, and objective representation of how things occur in reality. It focuses on circumstantial and experimental reality, providing a truthful and honest depiction of ordinary life.
Representational and Non-Representational Art
Art is further divided by its subject matter. Representational art is a type of art that depicts real objects and events in a way that is easy for the audience to recognize. Non-representational art does not depict anything from the real world, focusing instead on form, color, or other elements that do not refer to external objects.
Fundamentals of Sculpture: Form, Scale, and Subject
Sculpture is defined as the art of giving meaningful shape to any medium, serving as a three-dimensional visual art form. Like other arts, it can be representational, showing objects from life, or non-representational. Traditional sculpture typically involves a single figure and is representational or figural. Its subject matter often includes historical subjects, mythology, religion, and past events, characterized by proportional and naturalistic details.
Sculptural Relief vs. Full Round Classification
Sculptures are classified by their relationship to the background. In relief sculpture, the sculpted form remains attached to a background plane. This is subdivided into low relief and high relief. In low relief, less than half of the sculpture protrudes from the background. In high relief, more than half of the sculpture protrudes. Full round sculpture, also known as free-standing sculpture, is freed entirely from the background plane and can be viewed from all sides.
Media and Technical Processes in Sculpture
Traditional media for sculpture include wood, clay, stone (such as marble), and metal (such as bronze). There are two primary traditional methods for creating these works. Carving follows a subtractive method where material is removed. The advantages of carving are that it is long-lasting and can produce beautiful, intricate features. However, the disadvantages include a restricted composition based on the size of the material, the risk of the rock breaking, the requirement of intensive engineering, and the need to respect the integrity of the rock.
Because of the fragility of stone, very little room for error exists; making a mistake often means the entire stone must be scrapped, though some parts can be sanded away to make them smooth. If a statue is carved from marble, it must be carefully engineered to support its own weight, which is why supports are often added. Bronze casting is used when a material cannot be carved. This process uses a substitution method and is performed in a foundry, which is a factory specifically for making metal sculptures.
Philosophical Values of Greco-Roman Antiquity
Classical Antiquity refers to the period of Ancient Greece and Rome, spanning from approximately to . This era was defined by four core values. First, Humanism is the belief in human excellence, human agency, and praise for human matters and pursuits rather than the divine or spiritual. Second, Idealism is the belief in the perfectibility of mankind. Third, Stoicism is a philosophy that encourages individuals not to get emotional over things they cannot control. Fourth, Naturalism is a preference for anatomically accurate artwork. A key example of these values is found in the work of Polykleitos, specifically the "Doryphoros" (Spear Bearer).
Evolution from Antiquity to the Middle Ages
The fall of Rome in the led to the beginning of medieval Europe and the Middle Ages. During this time, there was a significant rise in Christianity. Art shifted focus toward biblical figures, saints, Christian martyrs, and the Holy Family. Nudity, once celebrated in antiquity, became associated with shame and original sin. Consequently, the representation of the human body became more abstract and symbolic, with an emphasis on spiritual life rather than physical naturalism.
The European Renaissance and the Two Davids
The Renaissance, meaning "rebirth," began in Florence, Italy, and marked a return to Greco-Roman culture and humanism, often supported by the Medici family. Renaissance art combined Christian subject matter with classical ideals. Two famous statues of David, based on the Old Testament story of David and Goliath, illustrate this era. In the story, young David of Israel defeats the Philistine giant warrior Goliath, proving that God is on his side. This subject became popular because it combined spiritual and humanist elements.
Donatello's "David" was the first freestanding nude sculpture created since antiquity. It is a work of Christian humanism that utilizes the contrapposto stance. While historically accurate, its sensuousness was shocking to devout Christians of the time. Michelangelo's "David" is a massive marble statue standing stories tall. Unlike the stoic figures of the past, this David is depicted in a "fight or flight" state. Originally commissioned for the exterior of the Florence Cathedral, it became an instant masterpiece and a public symbol of the city of Florence.
Technical Comparison: Doryphoros, Donatello, and Michelangelo
Polykleitos' "Doryphoros" is one of the first highly realistic statues, utilizing the contrapposto stance, which is the distribution of weight onto one foot to create an "S-curve." It was originally called the "Canon" because it used multiple models to achieve a look of perfection. The Romans continued these Greek sculpture ideals until the Middle Ages, when sculpture returned to abstraction.
The Renaissance saw a return to these styles. Michelangelo’s "David" is noted for looking similar in its anatomical perfection to the "Doryphoros." While Donatello broke barriers by reintroducing nudity into the Christian context, Michelangelo’s version is regarded as one of the best sculptures ever created.
Architecture: Media, Principles, and Aesthetic Purpose
Architecture is both the art and technique of designing and building. It serves both practical/utilitarian purposes and expressive/aesthetic purposes. Common architectural types include residences, places of worship, commercial buildings, government buildings, bridges, walls, and monuments.
Media used in architecture include stone, which is durable and available in many textures; concrete, which was re-engineered by the Romans to be stronger and weather-resistant, though it has negative environmental impacts; wood, which can be re-engineered for durability; and brick, which has been used since antiquity. Iron was introduced during the Industrial Revolution for its strength and weather resistance. Steel is low in cost, very strong, and versatile. Glass has recently taken on a larger role in construction for both strength and decoration. Newer materials include plastics and carbon fiber, with carbon fiber being much stronger and 3D printing offering a growing future for plastic use.
The Greek Classical Orders
Greek temples were built using three distinct styles or "orders": Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The Doric order is the most simple, featuring a wide fluted shaft and no decorative base. The Ionic order is more decorative, characterized by volute capitals that look like rolled paper. The Corinthian order is the most decorative of the three, featuring slimmer shafts and highly ornate bases. Architectural components include the post (two base stones) and lintel (one cap stone), the pediment (the triangular area under the gabled roof), and the frieze (a horizontal decorative band below the ceiling or roof).
The Greek Parthenon and the Athenian Acropolis
The Parthenon is a temple in Athens, Greece, located in the Acropolis ("High City"), a fortified area within the city housing important public buildings. The Parthenon was built to honor Athena, the Goddess of Wisdom and patron goddess of Athens, and to celebrate Athenian civic pride after the Greco-Persian War. The Persians had captured and razed Athens, but were eventually defeated in a naval battle led by the Athenians. Pericles, a powerful statesman and gifted orator, called to rebuild the Acropolis.
The Parthenon is approximately years old and made entirely of marble. It took years to build the structure and another years for the sculpture. It was the largest Doric-style temple of its time, featuring a rectangular plan and two inner chambers separated by a solid wall. It uses the post and lintel principle with Doric columns ( outer and inner). The columns are high with flutes. The architects used entasis, a slight swelling of the columns, to correct optical illusions. Phidias, considered the "GOAT" (greatest of all time) of Greek sculptors, was the head sculptor for the Acropolis.
The Parthenon features life-sized sculptures in the pediments: the east depicts the birth of Athena, and the west depicts the contest between Athena and Poseidon. The frieze runs along all four sides. The outer frieze consists of high-relief metopes depicting battles such as man vs. beast and Greeks vs. Barbarians, symbolizing rational civilization over barbarism. The inner frieze is a low-relief continuous band showing human and divine figures in an annual festival for Athena, originally colorfully painted.
Roman Architectural Innovation: Arches, Concrete, and the Pantheon
Ancient Rome was heavily influenced by the Greeks but advanced civilization through superior engineering. Roman architecture is known for the Arch and Vault system, the use of concrete, and the creation of grand interior spaces where "bigger is better." A key component of the arch is the keystone, a wedge-shaped stone at the apex that is the final piece placed during construction.
Vaulting is used to cover spaces or passageways. A tunnel or barrel vault is created by lining up rows of rounded arches. A groin vault is formed by the intersection of two tunnel vaults at a right angle. A dome is an arch that has been turned degrees, allowing for larger and wider spaces. The Roman Pantheon is a tribute to all the gods and is the best-preserved ancient building. It features a Greek-style portico in the front and a Roman-style circular building in the back. Other Roman engineering feats include the Cloaca Maxima, used for moving water back and forth.
Gothic Cathedral Architecture: Height, Light, and Engineering
Between and , Gothic architecture became prevalent in Western Europe, representing a medieval synthesis of the arts. These Christian churches reflected the values of the rising faith. Pilgrimage churches were big business for European towns, as they allowed the faithful to come closer to saints and form a bond with God. Before the Gothic style, the Romanesque or Norman style was common, characterized by the basilica shape, heavy stone and brick masonry, a cruciform (cross) shape, the Roman round arch, and thick walls with small windows, often described as a "spiritual fortress."
Gothic architecture focused on achieving "height and light." Key features included the pointed arch, which helped build taller buildings with more open space, and the ribbed vault, created when pointed arches intersect. To support the weight of these tall walls and allow for large windows, architects utilized the flying buttress, which provided external support to the structure.