Attachment

Caregiver-Infant Interactions

• Attachment: A deep and enduring emotional bond between two people in which each seeks closeness and feels more secure when in the presence of the attachment figure.

• Reciprocity: From around three months, interactions involve close attention to each other’s signals. Brazelton et al. (1975) described this as a \"dance\" where each partner responds to the other's moves.

• Interactional Synchrony: Caregiver and infant reflect both the actions and emotions of the other and do this in a coordinated (synchronized) way. Isabella et al. (1989) observed $30$ mothers and infants and found that high levels of synchrony were associated with better quality mother-infant attachment.

Stages of Attachment (Schaffer and Emerson)

Based on a longitudinal study of $60$ Glasgow infants from working-class families:

• Asocial Stage (0-6 weeks): The infant’s behavior towards non-human objects and humans is quite similar. Some preference for familiar adults and being calmed by humans.

• Indiscriminate Attachment (6 weeks - 6 months): Babies display more observable social behavior. They show a preference for people rather than inanimate objects and recognize familiar adults. They usually accept cuddles from any adult.

• Specific Attachment (7 months+): The baby begins to show separation anxiety (protest when a particular adult leaves them) and stranger anxiety. They have formed a specific attachment with the primary attachment figure ($65\%$ of cases this was the mother).

• Multiple Attachments (10/11 months+): Shortly after forming a specific attachment, babies extend this behavior to multiple attachments with other adults they spend time with (secondary attachments).

Evaluation of Attachment Stages

• Methodological Strengths/Weaknesses: The study had good external validity as it was conducted in the families' homes. However, it had low population validity because the sample was restricted to the same district and social class in Glasgow in the 1960s.

• Sensitive Responsiveness: Schaffer and Emerson found that the intensity of the bond depended on how sensitive the adult was to the baby’s signals, not necessarily who fed or changed them.

Role of the Father

• Secondary Attachment: Fathers are often the secondary attachment figure. Grossman (2002) found that the quality of infant attachment with fathers was less important for adolescent attachment than the quality of attachment with mothers.

• Play and Stimulation: The father's role is seen more as related to play and stimulation rather than nurturing.

• Fathers as Primary Caregivers: Field (1978) filmed 4-month-old babies and found that primary caregiver fathers, like mothers, spent more time smiling, touching, and holding infants than secondary caregiver fathers.

Animal Studies of Attachment

• Lorenz (1935): Divided a clutch of goose eggs; half hatched with the mother, half in an incubator with Lorenz. The incubator group followed Lorenz everywhere. He identified a critical period (a few hours) for imprinting. If imprinting does not occur then, it never will.

• Harlow (1958): Reared $16$ rhesus monkeys with two wire ‘mothers.’ One wrapped in cloth (comfort) and one bare wire but providing food. Monkeys sought \"contact comfort\" from the cloth mother when frightened, regardless of food. He found a critical period of $90$ days; maternal deprivation led to permanent social dysfunction (e.g., aggression, inability to mate).

Explanations of Attachment

• Learning Theory: Often called the \"cupboard love\" theory. Proposed by Dollard and Miller (1950).

  • Classical Conditioning: Caregiver (neutral stimulus) is associated with food (unconditioned stimulus) which produces pleasure (unconditioned response). Eventually, the caregiver becomes a conditioned stimulus producing a conditioned response of pleasure.

  • Operant Conditioning: Crying leads to a response from the caregiver (e.g., feeding). As long as the caregiver provides the correct response, crying is positively reinforced. The caregiver receives negative reinforcement because the crying stops.

• Bowlby’s Monotropic Theory: Evolutionary explanation stating attachment is innate. Key components (ASCMI):

  • Adaptive: Attachment is a survival mechanism.

  • Social Releasers: Innate ‘cute’ behaviors (smiling, cooing) to activate adult attachment systems.

  • Critical Period: Attachment must form between $6$ months and $2$ years.

  • Monotropy: One particular attachment (the mother) is different and more important than others.

  • Internal Working Model: A mental representation of the primary attachment that serves as a template for future relationships.

Ainsworth’s Strange Situation

A controlled observation measuring proximity seeking, exploration/secure-base behavior, stranger anxiety, separation anxiety, and response to reunion.

• Secure Attachment (Type B; 65-75%): Explore happily but go back to caregiver regularly. Moderate separation/stranger anxiety. Require and accept comfort on reunion.

• Insecure-Avoidant (Type A; 20-25%): Explore freely but do not seek proximity. No/little reaction to caregiver leaving or returning. Little stranger anxiety.

• Insecure-Resistant (Type C; 3%): Seek greater proximity and explore less. High levels of stranger/separation anxiety but resist comfort when reunited with caregiver.

Cultural Variations

• Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988): Meta-analysis of $32$ studies across $8$ countries. Found that secure attachment was the most common in all countries. However, Japan and Israel (collectivist) showed higher levels of Insecure-Resistant, while Germany (individualist) showed higher levels of Insecure-Avoidant.

Bowlby’s Maternal Deprivation Theory

• Focused on the idea that continuous care from a mother is essential for normal psychological development.

• 44 Thieves Study: Bowlby interviewed $44$ criminal teenagers accused of stealing. Found that $14/44$ could be described as affectionless psychopaths (lacking guilt/empathy). Of these $14$, $12$ had experienced prolonged separation from their mothers in the first two years of life.

Institutionalization Effects

• Romanian Orphan Studies (Rutter et al. 2011): Followed $165$ Romanian orphans adopted in Britain. Those adopted after $6$ months showed signs of disinhibited attachment (attention-seeking, clinginess, friendliness to strangers). At age $11$, those adopted before $6$ months had a mean IQ of $102$, while those adopted after $2$ years had a mean IQ of $77$.

Attachment Disorders

• Disinhibited Attachment: An effect of spending time in an institution where a child is equally affectionate to people they know well and strangers. This is an adaptation to having multiple caregivers during the sensitive period.

Influence of Early Attachment

• Internal Working Model: Acts as a blueprint for future relationships. A child with a secure attachment will assume relationships are meant to be that way and be functional. Insecurely attached children may struggle to form relationships or behave inappropriately within them (Myron-Wilson and Smith found insecure-avoidant children were most likely to be victims of bullying, while insecure-resistant were most likely to be bullies).