Developmental Theories: Ethological Theory, Adulthood and Lifespan Developmental Theories

Ethological Theory

• Ethological theory studies how observable temperament differences at birth influence development through childhood and adolescence.
• It emphasizes attachment's role in relationship development from infancy through the lifespan, linking to lifespan applications of psychodynamic theory.
• Ethological theory applies evolutionary biology and ethology principles to behavioral and psychological characteristics (Ainsworth & Bowlby, 1991; Feldman, Weller, Leckman, Kuint, & Eidelman, 1999; Leckman, Feldman, Swain, Eicher, Thompson, & Mayes, 2004; Leckman & Mayes, 1998).
• It originates from ethology, which studies animal species in natural environments (Miller, 2002, 2010).
• Ethology highlights how behaviours have survived and evolved via natural selection and adaptation, ensuring species survival.
• Developmental ethologists study how shared human behavioral and psychological traits may have evolved to ensure human survival.
• Ethology began in the 1930s with zoologists Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen, who studied imprinting, natural selection for behavioral traits, learning readiness, and critical learning periods.
• Lorenz and Tinbergen observed animals in natural habitats, noting survival-promoting behavior patterns.
• Imprinting: Baby birds (e.g., geese) stay close to their mother for feeding and safety.
  • Demonstrated in the movie Fly Away Home, where geese imprint on a young girl.
  • Occurs during a critical period of development.
  • If the mother is absent, goslings may imprint on an object resembling her.
• Ethological theory uses careful observation and experimentation to find immediate causes of behaviour.
• Developmental psychology adopted ethological principles due to its history of naturalistic observation of children and examining the biological basis of development.
• It is assumed that human evolution has constrained our physical and behavioral development.
• Developmental ethologists study how individual differences (e.g., aggressiveness, shyness) interact with the social context to influence development.
• Areas of interest include:
  • Infant emotions and temperament: Enduring individual differences in infant responsiveness and self-regulation present at birth.
  • Infant–caregiver attachment: Physical, social, and emotional stimulation and support between infant and caregiver.
    • Observed in other species, suggesting survival value for humans (e.g., Bowlby, 1988b, 2014).
    • Attachment is important throughout the lifespan.

Adulthood and Lifespan Developmental Theories

• Two theoretical approaches focus on development during adulthood and across the lifespan:
  • Normative-crisis model (stage-theory model)
  • Timing-of-events model
• Both models assume individual developmental change continues throughout life.

Normative-Crisis Model of Development

• Assumes developmental change occurs in distinct stages, followed in the same sequence by individuals.
• Each stage is:
  • Qualitatively unique.
  • Increasingly complex and more fully developed.
  • Integrates changes and accomplishments of earlier stages.
• Developmental stages are at least partly.