1914-1918: The World at War Study Notes

Perspectives and Overview of the Great War (1914–1918)

• Duration: The conflict spanned from the year $1914$ to $1918$.

• Varying Viewpoints and Epithets:     * "Family Feud": Referring to the interconnected royal families of Europe (many monarchs were cousins, such as Nicholas II of Russia, George V of Britain, and Wilhelm II of Germany).     * "The War to End All Wars": Reflecting the initial hope that the scale of destruction would prevent future conflicts.     * "The War to 'Make the World Safe for Democracy'": A viewpoint heavily championed by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson.

The Alliance System: Two Armed Camps

• The Triple Entente (Pre-War Agreement): Comprised of Great Britain, France, and Russia.

• The Triple Alliance (Pre-War Agreement): Comprised of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy.

• The Allied Powers (War-Time Evolution):     * Major Members: Great Britain, France, Russia (until $1917$), Italy (joined $1915$), and the United States (joined $1917$).     * Additional Allies: Serbia, Belgium, Romania, Greece, Montenegro, and Japan.

• The Central Powers (War-Time Evolution):     * Major Members: Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire (Turkey).     * Additional Ally: Bulgaria.

Major Political Leaders and Players (1914–1917)

• Allied Powers Leaders:     * Nicholas II: Tsar of Russia.     * George V: King of Great Britain.     * Pres. Poincaré: President of France.     * Victor Emmanuel II: King of Italy.

• Central Powers Leaders:     * Franz Josef: Emperor of Austria-Hungary.     * Wilhelm II: Kaiser of Germany.     * Enver Pasha: Leader in the Ottoman Empire (Turkey).

Underlying Causes: Militarism, Imperialism, and Economic Rivalry

• Militarism and the Arms Race: Between $1870$ and $1914$, defense expenditures by the Great Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy, France, Britain, and Russia) escalated dramatically.     * Total Defense Expenditures (in millions of £s):         * $1870$: $94$ million         * $1880$: $130$ million         * $1890$: $154$ million         * $1900$: $268$ million         * $1910$: $289$ million         * $1914$: $398$ million     * Increase in Defense Expenditures ($1910$–$1914$):         * France: $10\%$         * Britain: $13\%$         * Russia: $39\%$         * Germany: $73\%$

• Economic and Imperial Rivalries: Competition for colonies and resources spanned the globe, including Canada, Russia, India, Japan, China (Tsingtao, Hong Kong), Australia, and Africa. Overseas battles occurred at locations like Coronel, the Falkland Islands, and the Cocos Islands.

• Aggressive Nationalism: Deep-seated national pride and the desire for self-determination among ethnic groups.

• Pan-Slavism and the Balkan "Powder Keg": The Balkans were a region of intense ethnic tension involving Serbs, Croats, Macedonians, Bulgars, Albanians, Roumanians, and Slavs in $1914$. This region was considered the "Powder Keg of Europe" due to the conflicting interests of the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires versus nationalist movements supported by Russia.

The Outbreak of War: The "Spark"

• The Assassination: On June $28$, $1914$, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, and his family were assassinated while visiting Sarajevo.

• The Assassin: Gavrilo Princip, a member of a Serbian nationalist group.

• The Blame: Contemporary propaganda (e.g., "The Crime of the Ages") depicted the complex web of European alliances pointing fingers at one another, following the assassination in Sarajevo.

Mobilization and Public Sentiment

• Initial Enthusiasm: Many soldiers left for war with the belief they would be "Home by Christmas." There had been no major war in Europe for $50$ years.

• Nationalist Sentiment: Popular war songs like "It's a Long Way to Tipperary" capture the era: "It's a long way to Tipperary, to the sweetest girl I know! Goodbye, Piccadilly, farewell, Leicester Square…"

• Propaganda and Recruitment:     * Belgium: British propaganda focused on "German Atrocities in Belgium" to stir recruitment and support for the "Fourth Liberty Loan."     * Recruitment Posters: Famous imagery includes Britain's "Your Country Needs You" (Lord Kitchener) and the United States' "I Want You for U.S. Army" (Uncle Sam).

• Mobilization Totals (Millions of Soldiers):     * Russia: Approximately $12$ million.     * Germany: Approximately $11$ million.     * France: Approximately $8.5$ million.     * Britain: Approximately $9$ million.

Total War: The Role of Women and Home Front

• Financing the War: Use of Liberty Bonds (e.g., Third Liberty Loan) where propaganda utilized children to encourage parental investment.

• Women's Roles:     * Munitions Workers: Women took over factory roles, essential for supplying the front.     * Agriculture: "The Girl on the Land" served in the Land Service Committee or Y.W.C.A. as farm laborers.     * Medical/Service: Women served as ambulance drivers for the British Red Cross Society and as nurses.     * Military Auxiliaries: Queen Mary's Army Auxiliary Corps. Some women, particularly in Russia, served as soldiers.

• Espionage: Margareetha Geertruida Zelle, known as "Mata Hari," was a famous German spy during the conflict.

Military Strategy and the Western Front

• The Schlieffen Plan: A German strategic plan to avoid a two-front war by rapidly defeating France through neutral Belgium before turning to face Russia. It involved bypassing the heavily fortified French border and circling Paris from the north.

• A War of Attrition: The Western Front became a stalemate characterized by trench warfare.

• Trench Warfare Structure:     * No Man's Land: The lethal space between opposing trenches.     * Anatomy of a Trench: Front-line trench, firebay, support trench, reserve trench, company HQ dugout, and communication trenches. Protection included saps (forward listening posts) and parados (protection from explosions behind the trench).

• Major Battles on the Western Front:     * Verdun (February $1916$): A massive German offensive resulting in $500,000$ casualties for each side.     * The Somme (July $1916$): Resulted in $60,000$ British soldiers killed in a single day and over $1,000,000$ total deaths over five months.

Multi-Front and Global Warfare

• The Eastern Front: Involved massive movements across Russia and Central Europe.

• The Italian Front: Combat between Italy and Austria-Hungary (e.g., Caporetto, Vittorio Veneto).

• The Balkan Front: Fighting through Serbia and Greece (e.g., Gallipoli, Salonika).

• The Gallipoli Disaster ($1915$): An Allied attempt to take the Dardanelles and Constantinople. Key sites included ANZAC Cove, Cape Helles, and the Narrows.

• The Middle East:     * Turkish Cavalry in Palestine.     * The Arab Revolt ($1916$–$1918$): Supported by T. E. Lawrence ("Lawrence of Arabia") and Prince Faisal.

• Colonial Fronts:     * Africa: Involvement of British Sikh Mountain Gunners and Black soldiers in the German Schutztruppen (German East Africa), as well as the Nigerian Brigade.     * Asia: French colonial marine infantry from Cochin, China ($1916$).

United States Entry and Submarine Warfare

• The Sinking of the Lusitania: Attacked by a German U-boat on May $7$, $1915$, resulting in approximately $1,260$ deaths (including Americans). Germany had issued warnings in newspapers regarding travel in the war zone.

• Unrestricted Submarine Warfare: German U-boats targeted Allied shipping, peaking in $1917$.

• The Zimmerman Telegram: A secret German proposal to Mexico to join an alliance against the U.S. Germany promised Mexico the "reconquest" of lost territory in Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona.

• U.S. Entry ($1917$): President Woodrow Wilson called for a declaration of war to support democracy. General Pershing led the American Expeditionary Forces ("Pershing's Crusaders").

Technology and the Industrial Revolution of War

• Land Technology:     * Tanks: French Renault tanks and British tanks used at Ypres ($1917$).     * Weaponry: Machine guns, grenade launchers, flame throwers, and Krupp's "Big Bertha" gun.     * Poison Gas: Introduced as a devastating new tool of chemical warfare.

• Air Technology:     * Airplanes: Used for reconnaissance and combat.     * Zeppelins: German airships used for bombing raids.     * Flying Aces:         * Manfred von Richtoffen (Germany) - "The Red Baron"         * Eddie Rickenbacher (US)         * René Paul Fonck (France)         * Eddie "Mick" Mannock (Britain)         * Francesco Barraco (Italy)         * Willy Coppens de Holthust (Belgium)

The Human Cost and Aftermath

• Art of War: Artists like John Singer Sargent ("A Street in Arras"), John Nash ("Oppy Wood"), and C. R. W. Nevinson ("Paths of Glory") depicted the desolation of the front.

• The 1918 Flu Pandemic: Depleted all armies and killed between $50,000,000$ and $100,000,000$ people worldwide.

• The Armistice: Signed at $11$ a.m. on November $11$, $1918$. Terms included unconditional surrender by the "Huns" (Germans).

• Casualties:     * Total War Dead: Approximately $9,000,000$.     * American Dead: $116,516$.     * Casualties by Country (Descending Order): Russia (highest), Germany, Austria-Hungary, France, Great Britain, Italy, Turkey, US.

The Armenian Genocide

• Events: During the war, the Ottoman Empire targeted its Armenian Christian population through evictions, drafts into labor, and massacres. Reports indicated thousands were drowned or burned alive.

• Population Statistics and Decline (approximate figures):     * Erzerum: $215,000$ ($1914$) to $1,500$ ($1922$)     * Van: $197,000$ ($1914$) to $500$ ($1922$)     * Kharbert: $204,000$ ($1914$) to $35,000$ ($1922$)     * Diarbekir: $124,000$ ($1914$) to $3,000$ ($1922$)     * Bitlis: $220,000$ ($1914$) to $56,000$ ($1922$)     * Sivas: $225,000$ ($1914$) to $16,800$ ($1922$)     * Western Anatolia: $371,800$ ($1914$) to $27,000$ ($1922$)     * Cilicia and Northern Syria: $309,000$ ($1914$) to $70,000$ ($1922$)     * European Turkey: $194,000$ ($1914$) to $163,000$ ($1922$)