Units 3-4: AP World History: 1450–1750 Study Notes

1. Integration
      - The Western and Eastern hemispheres entered continuous contact, making the world truly global.

2. Maritime Dominance
      - Sea-based trade rose in importance over land-based routes; new sea powers overshadowed traditional land empires.

3. European Rise
      - Europe gained significant relative power and prosperity compared to older civilizations.

4. Nomadic Decline
      - Increased water travel reduced the power and role of nomadic groups in trade and diffusion.

5. Labor Shifts
      - Colonies in the Americas necessitated new labor systems, including the Atlantic slave trade, mita, and encomienda.

6. Gunpowder Empires
      - Large states in the Middle East and Asia utilized new weaponry but struggled with traditional land-based administrative issues.

The Ottoman and Mughal Empires

1. Ottoman Empire
      - Founded by Osman; conquered Constantinople in $1453$. Under Sulieman the Magnificent, expansion reached from Baghdad to Belgrade, with the Siege of Vienna ($1530$) marking a turning point.
      - Administration: Utilized a complex bureaucracy, an absolute Sultan, and Janissaries (recruited Balkan Christians). Wealth was derived from controlling the Dardanelles and Black Sea.

2. Mughal Empire
      - Continuation of the Delhi Sultanate in modern India and Pakistan. Akbar attempted to reconcile Muslim and Hindu populations; Sikhism emerged during this era.

Tokugawa Japan and Dynastic China

1. Tokugawa Japan
      - Unified by the Tokugawa family in the early $17^{th}$ century. The shogunate used "alternate attendance" in Edo to control daimyos and established isolationist policies in the $1630s$.

2. Ming Dynasty
      - Suffered decline due to climate change (colder weather), nomadic invasions (Mongols), piracy, and the decay of the Silk Road.

3. Qing Dynasty
      - Established by Manchus in $1644$. Maintained ethnic separation through laws and the requirement of the queue hairstyle.
      - Golden Age: Peak prosperity under emperors Kangxi and Qianlong. Jesuit contact (e.g., Matteo Ricci) introduced European science but was limited by religious friction.

African and European Empires

1. African Empires
      - Kongo converted to Christianity and became a slave trade center; Benin was noted for bronze working; Songhai controlled gold and salt trade until defeated by Morocco in $1591$.

2. European Powers
      - Portugal and Spain led early colonization. England utilized mercantilism and constitutionalism; France established absolutism under Louis XIV at Versailles.

3. Social Changes
      - Emergence of the bourgeoisie; later marriage ages; shifts in art and religion via the Renaissance and Reformation.

Russia and the Americas

1. Russia
      - Peter the Great pursued Westernization, mandating changes in clothing, education, and military to increase world power.

2. Columbian Exchange
      - Massive transfer of diseases (smallpox), animals (horses), and crops (potatoes, maize).

3. Demographics
      - American populations fell from $ext{approximately } 67 ext{ million}$ to $13 ext{ million}$ by $1700$ due to disease. European and Asian populations saw significant growth.

4. Environment
      - Single-crop plantations caused soil exhaustion; deforestation accelerated due to shipbuilding and the Little Ice Age ($1590s$).

Questions & Discussion

1. Question: What are the debates about the timing and extent of European predominance in the world economy?

2. Response: Debates suggest four primary drivers: individual visionaries (e.g., Prince Henry the Navigator, Sir Isaac Newton), cultural shifts emphasizing earthly domination (Renaissance), economic demands for new markets, and political motivations of monarchs to finance wars.

Side Note(s):

The Protestant Reformation was a religious movement in the 16th century that sought to reform the practices and beliefs of the Roman Catholic Church. It was initiated by figures such as Martin Luther, who famously criticized the Church's sale of indulgences and other corrupt practices. The movement led to the establishment of various Protestant denominations, including Lutheranism and Calvinism, fundamentally altering the Christian landscape in Europe. Key outcomes included:

• The translation of the Bible into vernacular languages, making it more accessible to laypeople.

• The rise of individual interpretation of Scriptures, reducing the authority of the papacy.

• Significant social, political, and cultural changes, including a shift towards increased secularism and the questioning of traditional authority.

The Columbian Exchange refers to the extensive transfer of plants, animals, people, culture, and diseases between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres that began after Christopher Columbus's voyages in 1492. This exchange had profound effects on global populations, economies, and ecosystems, leading to the introduction of new crops and livestock in both hemispheres and resulting in significant demographic shifts, including population growth in Europe and the decline of indigenous populations in the Americas.