Exhaustive Study Notes on Ethics, Dualism, Monism, and Free Will
Instrumental and Intrinsic Values
In the study of ethics, it is observed that there are different types of values that motivate human actions. An answer or an action is often a means to an end if there is a deeper underlying value behind it. These intermediate steps are known as instrumental values. An instrumental value serves as a tool or a middle step to achieve the actual goal. For instance, a musician has the goal of performing beautiful music for an audience. To achieve this, the musician requires an instrument such as a guitar. In this scenario, the guitar is the instrumental value. Similarly, a person might enjoy sports, but the sport itself is an instrumental value used to reach the ultimate goal of finding happiness in a healthy life. That happiness is the actual goal.
Something possesses intrinsic value when it is valuable in and of itself and is not being used to achieve another purpose. It is no longer a means to an end; it is the end itself. This ultimate goal varies from person to person. Much of what an individual does, as well as the ethical choices they make, are driven by these underlying intrinsic values. An example provided involves Robin, who performs chores on the weekend to earn extra pocket money. This money is an instrumental value used to buy the newest video games. Robin plays games because of a difficult divorce occurring between his mother and father at home. The games provide a distraction. In this case, the games are an instrumental value, and the distraction they provide is also an instrumental value to reach the intrinsic value of feeling happy, which Robin finds very important at the moment.
Values, Norms, and Morality
Values are the ideals and motives that are considered worth pursuing. They refer to the underlying reasons why something is considered important. For example, in a protest regarding school dress codes, the value being fought for is equality between men and women. On the other hand, norms are the rules of conduct within a society or a specific group. Society or a group often looks down upon the violation of norms. While norms usually flow from the values of a society, values can change over time. When values and norms conflict, it can lead to protest. The collective whole of values and norms applicable within a specific group or society is defined as morality. Morality can differ significantly between cultures; for example, in Egypt, it is considered offensive to ask for salt from a restaurant owner, while in Venezuela, arriving fifteen minutes late to an appointment is expected, as arriving too early is seen as being too eager.
Specific examples of norms encountered in daily life include being on time for appointments, not bullying others, keeping distance when someone is typing their PIN code, and throwing trash in the bin. Norms can also lead to laws, where violating a rule of conduct becomes a punishable offense. Historical and international examples of such laws include a regulation in Great Britain stating a pregnant woman may relieve herself anywhere, even in a policeman\'s helmet. In Switzerland, it was once forbidden for men to urinate while standing after 22:00. In Australia, it is forbidden to give a name to an animal you intend to eat. Furthermore, there is a historical mention that if one sees a Scot in England, it is permitted to shoot them with a bow and arrow, except on Sundays.
Introduction to Ethics and Philosophical Disciplines
Ethics is a branch of philosophy that investigates what is good and evil and what constitutes "the good life." To understand the language of ethics, one must distinguish between various philosophical disciplines. Epistemology (Kennisleer) investigates how humans acquire knowledge, what "knowing" means, and how we can be certain of things. Philosophy of Science (Wetenschapsfilosofie) examines how science works, defining good research methods and the distinction between facts, hypotheses, and false beliefs. Metaphysics (Zijnsleer) investigates what truly exists and whether there is a deeper cause for all that exists. Logic (Logica) investigates the rules for correct thinking and reasoning.
Within the world of science, a distinction is made between exact sciences and human sciences. Exact sciences are based on natural laws and measurable facts, often utilizing mathematics, such as physics and chemistry. Human sciences investigate humans—how they live, think, feel, and collaborate within society and culture—including disciplines like sociology, psychology, and philosophy itself. An ethical dilemma is presented through the story of Milan, a doctor. One of his patients is HIV-positive and plans to intentionally infect others upon leaving the hospital. Milan is bound by professional confidentiality and has no legal way to stop him, but he considers poisoning the patient\'s medication to prevent the harm. This scenario highlights the tension between professional norms and the value of protecting human life.
Dualism and the Philosophy of René Descartes
René Descartes concluded through his famous statement, "I think, therefore I am," that his existence was proven by his doubt and thought. He realized he could imagine not having a body or being nowhere, but he could not imagine himself not existing as a thinking being. This led to the conclusion that the mind is not matter like the body. Descartes proposed a split known as dualism, or more specifically, substance dualism. He defined "substance" as a mode of existence. For Descartes, there are two fundamental substances: the mind (the immaterial or the soul) and the body (the material or the physical).
These two substances follow separate laws. The body follows the laws of physics and operates in a mechanical way. The mind does not follow these laws and therefore does not operate mechanically. Descartes viewed the human being as a "thinking thing" that is essentially a mind that possesses a body, rather than being the body. This separation is exemplified in the performance art of Marina Abramović, specifically "Rhythm 0," where she allowed the audience to treat her body as an object while she disconnected her mind from the physical experience. Descartes attempted to explain the connection between the immaterial mind and the physical body by suggesting they meet in the pineal gland, though the nature of this connection remained a mystery.
Monism and the Philosophy of Baruch Spinoza
Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677) disagreed with Descartes\' dualism. Spinoza argued that a mind could not exist if it were not part of the world it influenced, as this would contradict a mechanical worldview. He was a monist, meaning he believed that humans are not composed of two separate substances. To Spinoza, a human is a single entity where the body and mind are inseparable and represent two different appearances of the same substance. He famously stated that you do not have a body, you "are" a body.
Spinoza\'s worldview was deeply rooted in the rise of modern science in the 17th century, which viewed the world as a mechanical system where every event necessarily follows from a preceding event according to natural laws. This is known as a causal chain or a cause-effect relationship. Spinoza\'s monism leaves no room for the traditional concept of free will because the mind is part of the same mechanical substance as the body and is subject to the same necessity of cause and effect.
Determinism and the Causal Chain
Determinism is the principle that the state of the universe at any given moment determines the state at all other moments. It assumes that the present is caused by previous events according to the laws that govern the world. If one knows the location, speed, and direction of an object, one can theoretically predict its future position. Spinoza strongly believed in this mechanistic view, asserting that everything happens as it necessarily must and that no other outcome is possible.
A tragic real-world example used to illustrate the complexity of causes leading to an event involves a father in New York who forgot his eleven-month-old twins in his car while he went to work. The children were in the car for eight hours in temperatures around . When he returned, they were found dead with foam around their mouths. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) warns that temperatures inside a car can rise by in just , and a body temperature of can be fatal. In the previous year, died from heat in vehicles in the US. This scenario raises questions about whether the father could have acted differently or if the event was an inevitable result of a complex chain of causes, including psychological factors and environmental conditions.
The Problem of Free Will
Free will is often defined as conscious steering—the ability to have a conscious thought immediately before an action that causes that action. Under this definition, one acts out of free will when the action is the result of thinking, "And now I am going to do this." However, Spinoza argued that free will is an illusion born out of ignorance. He believed people think they have free will simply because they are unaware of the complex causal factors behind their actions. Because the chain of causes is so long and complex, particularly in humans, it is difficult to track, leading people to attribute their actions to their own will.
Modern neuroscience, such as the work of Victor Lamme, supports this skeptical view of free will. In one study, subjects were informed about the importance of sun protection while in a brain scanner. Their subsequent behavior (whether they actually used sunscreen) showed a weak link to their stated intentions but a strong link to activity in the precuneus (involved in attention) and the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC, involved in emotional evaluation). Lamme refers to the brain as a "chatterbox" (kwebbeldoos) that invents rational explanations for decisions that have already been made unconsciously. Furthermore, Bas Haring explores the concept by questioning the conditions for free will, using the "bimbobox" metaphor and the idea of making choices under pressure or due to underlying psychological conditions (like kleptomania), which may negate true responsibility.
Questions & Discussion
Question 1: Regarding the train example, if a train travels at toward a destination away without delays, when will it arrive? Response: It will arrive in . This is predictable because the physical laws and parameters (speed and distance) are known. If a delay occurs, accurate prediction requires knowing all preceding causes of that delay.
Question 2: In the article about the school protest in Quebec, what rules are being protested? Response: The students and director are protesting against school dress codes (uniforms) that are perceived as sexist, as well as rules reflecting anti-LGBTQ+ attitudes. At this school on October 9, 2020, male students wore skirts to show solidarity against discrimination and toxic masculinity.
Question 3: What is a "bimbobox" in the context of Bas Haring\'s explanation? Response: The bimbobox refers to a setup (often seen with mechanical monkeys in a box) used to illustrate how actions can be pre-programmed or determined by external inputs, similar to the debate on whether human actions are determined.
Question 4: What determines the choice of an ice cream flavor (vanilla, chocolate, or strawberry)? Response: The discussion suggests that various factors influence this choice, including personal preference, biological drives, and past experiences. The exercise asks students to consider if they can truly "will what they want" or if the choice is influenced by factors beyond their conscious control.
Question 5: Can you connect telekinesis to Descartes\' dualism? Response: Telekinesis, the power to move objects with the mind, aligns with dualism because it assumes the mind is a separate, non-physical force that can act upon the physical world. If substance dualism is true, the mind (the thinking substance) might theoretically influence material substance (the body or external objects), though Descartes\' own explanation of this link via the pineal gland was historically criticized.**