History 2

The Vast Eastern Lowland

• Covers the narrow coastal strip of northeastern Eritrea.

• Gradually widens and descends southwards to include:

  • Much of lowland Eritrea

  • Sahel

  • Danakil Desert

  • Lower Awash valley

  • Arid terrain in northeast Djibouti

• Extends to:

  • Ogaden

  • Lower parts of Hararghe

  • Bale

  • Borana

  • Sidamo

  • Entire territory of the Republic of Somalia.

• Climatic Conditions:

  • Characterized by hot and dry conditions year-round.

  • Periodic monsoon winds and irregular rainfall.

  • Limited areas with rainfall along rivers such as:

  • Awash

  • Wabe Shebele

  • Genale/Jubba.

  • Off-shore islands (e.g., Dahlak, Socotra) in the Red Sea, Aden Gulf, and Indian Ocean, inhabited by people closely related to mainland districts.

• Vegetation:

  • Major vegetation consists of shrubs and bushes.

Highland Massif

• Location:

  • Situated immediately to the west of the eastern lowland.

  • Extends from northern Eritrea to southern Ethiopia.

• Features:

  • Comprises the Arssi, Bale, and Hararghe plateaus in its eastern extension.

  • Major divide between western and eastern parts is the Rift Valley.

  • Physiographic features include complex mountains, deep valleys, and extensive plateaus.

• Historical Context:

  • Notable decline in rainfall since the 1960s in Ethiopia and the Horn, resulting in drought and famine, including the notable Ethiopian famines of the 1970s and 1980s.

Western Hot Lowlands

• Location:

  • Found along the western foothills and on the periphery of the plateau along the Sudan border, stretching from north to south.

• Historical Character:

  • Formerly characterized by thick forests along the banks of the Nile and its tributaries.

• Linguistic and Ethnic Connections:

  • Despite varied physical environments, the Horn of Africa countries are linguistically and ethnically linked.

  • Population movements have caused continuous interaction and complex settlement patterns, especially in Ethiopia with Cushitic groups mingling with semitized populations in northern and central highlands.

  • Common history and adherence to Christianity or Islam have weakened ethnic lines, emphasizing linguistic and cultural affinities.

Unit Two: Peoples and Cultures in Ethiopia and the Horn

2.1 Human Evolution

• Divergent Views on Human Origins:

  1. Creationist View:

  • Contends that a supernatural force or God created living and non-living things, including humans, fully formed.

  1. Evolutionist View:

  • Argues that living and non-living things evolved from simpler forms over millions of years.

• Charles Darwin (1809-1882):

  • Published "Theory of Evolution" (1859) and "Descent of Man" (1871).

  • Evolution accounts for a fraction of Earth's history formed over about 4.5 billion years.

• Evolution Timeline:

  • The earliest life forms emerged between 3 and 1 billion years ago.

  • Key milestones:

  • Blue-green algae and small plants appeared c. 800 million years B.P.

  • First primates branched out from Tarsiers 200-170 million years B.P.

    • Developed into Pongidae (e.g., baboons, monkeys) and Hominidae (human ancestors).

• Archaeological Evidence:

  • Evidence suggests humans and apes share common ancestors, especially in East African Rift Valley considered the cradle of humanity.

  • Significant fossils discovered:

  • Cororapithecus: Dated 10 million B.P. (Hararghe, 2007).

  • Ardipithicus Ramidus kadabba & ramidus: Dated 5.8-4.2 million B.P. (Middle Awash, 1994).

  • Australopithecines:

    • Selam (3.3 million B.P., Dikika, 2000).

    • Lucy/Dinkinesh (3.18 million years B.P., Hadar, 1974).

Genus Homo

• Main Feature: Development of the human brain leading to the emergence of genus Homo (2-2.5 million B.P.).

• Species within Genus Homo:

  1. Homo Habilis:

  • Origin of name: Latin "Homo" means human, "Habilis" means skillful.

  • Fossil dated 1.9 million B.P., brain size 650-800 cc.

  1. Homo Erectus:

  • Known as upright-walking humans.

  • Fossil dated 1.6 million years B.P.; height 185 cm, weight 68 kg, brain size 900-1100 cc.

  1. Homo Sapiens:

  • Archaic Homo sapiens (Bodo, dated 400,000 years B.P., brain size 1300-1400 cc).

  • Homo sapiens sapiens (modern humans):

    • Fossils dated 100,000 years B.P. found at Porc Epic and Kibish (re-dated to 195,000 years).

  • Homo sapiens idaltu found in Middle Awash, dated 160,000 years ago.

Cultural Evolution

• Related to technological changes impacting socio-economic transformations:

  • Grouped into:

  • Stone Age

  • Bronze Age

  • Iron Age

• Stone Tools Development:

  • First technologies: Developed by human beings.

  • Grouping based on production method:

  1. Mode I (Olduwan):

     • Crude mono-facial styles, direct percussion production.

  2. Mode II (Acheulean):

     • Indirect percussion using hand-ax, bifacial, pointed, convex features.

  3. Mode III (Sangoon):

     • Flexible, finer production using obsidian.

The Stone Age

• Divided into sub-periods:

  1. Paleolithic (Old Stone Age):

  • Lasted from 3.4 million years to 11,000 years B.P.

  • Development of language, shelter, and division of labor.

  • Noteworthy sites: Gademotta, Gorgora, Ki’one, Yabaldho, Midhidhishi, Gudgud.

  1. Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age):

  • Lasted from 11,000 to 10,000 B.P.

  • Transition between Old and Neolithic Ages.

  1. Neolithic (New Stone Age):

  • Lasted from 10,000 to 6,000 B.P.

  • Introduction of micro-lithic tools.

2.2 The Neolithic Revolution

• Transition from mobile to sedentary lifestyle:

  • Shift from hunting and gathering to domesticating plants and animals.

  • Climatic changes led to reduced animal populations; consequently, people cultivated edible plants.

• Changes in community structure:

  • Families formed larger communities for security and cooperative labor.

  • Adoption of ox-drawn ploughs.

• Domestication in the Horn of Africa:

  • Plants cultivated:

  • Teff (Eragrotis teff)

  • Dagussa (Eleusine coracana)

  • Nug (Guzotia abyssinica)

  • Enset (Ensete ventricosum)

  • Evidence of material culture (polished axes, ceramics, grinding stones) found at archaeological sites (e.g., Gobodara, Lalibela).

2.3 The Peopling of the Region

2.3.1 Languages and Linguistic Processes

• Ethnic and linguistic diversity with about 90 languages and 200 dialects in Ethiopia and the Horn.

• Classification into two language superfamilies:

  • Afro-Asiatic: Sub-divided into:

  • Cushitic (several branches)

  • Semitic (North & South divisions)

  • Omotic

  • Nilo-Saharan: Sub-divided into Chari-Nile and Koman.

2.3.2 Settlement Patterns

• Historical processes shape distribution of peoples.

• Variability in density based on environmental and socio-economic factors.

  • Cushitic and Semitic peoples historically inhabited the area between the Red Sea and Blue Nile, leading to diverse settlement patterns across the region.

2.3.3 Economic Formations

• Coexistence of agriculture and pastoralism influenced by climate and geography.

• Pastoralism:

  • Dominance in eastern lowland regions with economies based on camel, goat, and cattle.

• Agriculture:

  • Plateaus supported plough agriculture and mixed farming since ancient times.

2.4 Religion and Religious Processes

2.4.1 Indigenous Religion

• Diverse beliefs native to the region focusing on a supreme being and sacred natural phenomena.

• Spiritual functionaries act as intermediaries, performing rituals and rituals of propitiation.

• Example Practices:

  • Waqeffanna of Oromo, honoring different spirits including soil, fertility, and peace.

2.4.2 Judaism

• Notable presence since the 4th century AD with Bete-Israel's refusal to convert to Christianity, claiming descent from the Tribe of Dan.

2.4.3 Christianity

• Became a state religion in 334 AD under King Ezana, replacing previous pagan deities.

• Influenced by missionaries from the Coptic church.

2.4.4 Islam

• Spread through refugees under King Armah and peaceful means like trade rather than Jihad.

• Established itself in the coastal areas and within pastoral communities of the interior.