Rhetoric: Key Concepts, History, and Modes chap 1 pt 1

Definitions and Perspectives on Rhetoric

• The word rhetoric has a bad reputation; often labeled as 'empty rhetoric' or fluff.
• People might ask: why study rhetoric if it seems meaningless?
• Rhetoric is not the opposite of meaningful content; rhetoric gives content its meaning; rhetoric makes meaning.
• Key definitions from major thinkers:
  • Quintillian (1st century AD): 'Rhetoric is the art of speaking well.'
  • Aristotle (4th century BCE): rhetoric is seeing all available means of persuasion.
  • Lloyd Bitzer (20th century): rhetoric is a mode of altering reality, not by direct energy to objects, but by the creation of discourse which changes reality through the mediation of thought and action.
  • Krista Ratcliffe (21st century): rhetoric is the study of how we use language and how language uses us.
  • Kenneth Burke (20th century): 'Wherever there is persuasion, there is rhetoric. And wherever there is meaning, there is persuasion.'
• What these definitions share: language has a powerful effect in the world; the effects of language constitute rhetoric.
• Burke’s view hints that meaning and persuasion co-occur; where there is meaning, there is persuasion.
• Simple illustration of rhetoric’s impact on perception:
  • Description A: a small cylinder of congealed glucose and gelatin, covered in corn starch.
  • Description B: a light, fluffy treat with a sweet vanilla taste.
  • Both refer to the same treat (marshmallows), but the wording shapes audience perception.
• Broader implication: rhetoric helps to change reality; language shapes how we understand and respond to the world.
• Deliberation and rhetoric are intertwined: careful, reasoned discussion is shaped by rhetorical language.

Historical Foundations and Definitions of Rhetoric

• Rhetoric has roots in ancient education in Athens; schools taught rhetoric and oratory, including persuasive speech.
• Sophists were among early teachers of rhetoric; later, rivalries with Plato’s philosophical school affected reputations.
• Aristotle’s contribution: systematized rhetoric and argued it is needed because many social and political questions lack clear right answers.
• Three key situations (as Aristotle saw them) where rhetoric is necessary, each asking different questions and requiring different discourse:
  • Deliberative: looks toward the future; asks what should be done (e.g., how laws should be made or changed).
  • Judicial/forensic: looks toward the past; asks what happened; courts examine details of past events.
  • Epideictic: looks to praise or blame; involves celebratory or eulogistic discourse (epideictic derives from epideixis: to shine, to show forth).
• Isocrates (436–338 BCE) emphasized deliberation: in Antidosis, he writes that humans lack the certainty to know posivitely what to do or say, but wise people use conjecture to arrive at the best course; a philosopher studies to gain insight. This underscores that rhetoric involves collective deliberation to reach the best possible answer, not guaranteed certainty.
• Aristotle’s definition emphasizes that rhetoric is about seeing all available means of persuasion and discussing options with others to arrive at a fitting response, not merely persuading.
• Deliberation relies on the powerful use of language, i.e., rhetoric.

What kinds of rhetoric are there?

• Ancient Athens experimented with a form of democracy requiring broad citizen participation; many citizens spoke publicly about legal and political matters.
• This environment led to the emergence of new schools and a variety of rhetorical practice.
• The major categories of rhetoric (as later organized by scholars) include:
  • Deliberative rhetoric: future-oriented, policy and law-focused, persuading audiences about what should be done.
  • Judicial/forensic rhetoric: past-oriented, establishing what happened, often in legal settings.
  • Epideictic rhetoric: present-oriented, focused on praise or blame, often used in ceremonies, awards, and eulogies.

Two basic properties of persuasive discourse and the Aristotle distinction

• Any persuasive discourse has two fundamental elements:
  • Claim: the proposition or assertion being argued.
  • Evidence: support for the claim.
• Aristotle’s division of argument into two broad categories based on how evidence is used:
  • Non-artistic (inartistic) argument: evidence that is not invented by the rhetor; relies on external sources like eyewitness testimony, contracts, laws, etc.
  • Example: You owe me $10{,}000$ (claim) because you signed a contract promising to pay me $10{,}000$ if I built you this doghouse (evidence).
  • Artistic (invented) argument: the rhetor invents the way to support the claim for a particular audience and situation; not about falsifying facts but about selecting the most persuasive support.
  • Example: You should let me borrow your car (claim) because I am very responsible (evidence).
• Most everyday arguments are artistic: even when there is a contract (non-artistic), we often tailor our overall argument or frame to persuade our audience in a given context.
• Invention (the process of rhetorical invention): the stage where a rhetor selects the best possible arguments from a range of options to persuade a specific audience at a particular time.
• This chapter focuses on types and qualities of evidence used in artistic arguments and how their effectiveness depends on audience and context.

Real-world illustrations of rhetoric in action

• The Ms. vs Miss vs Mrs. distinction: the neutral title 'Ms.' emerged in the 20th century to avoid exposing a woman's marital status; it allowed addressing women without revealing marital status and changed perceptions of women in everyday life.
  • This demonstrates how a small linguistic change can alter social reality and perceptions.
• The deliberate use of language in public discourse (e.g., debates about environmental problems, school violence, physician-assisted suicide) illustrates how deliberation shapes policy and social outcomes when issues lack clear, definitive answers.
• The notion that language can alter reality is central to rhetorical theory: language shapes how people think and act, and persuasive discourse can influence decisions and societal norms.

Isocrates and the role of conjecture in deliberation

• Isocrates’ Antidosis emphasizes that human beings cannot attain scientific certainty about what to do or say; rather, wise individuals use conjecture to approximate the best course of action.
• This perspective supports a view of rhetoric as collaborative inquiry rather than a simple tool for winning arguments.
• The aim of rhetoric in deliberation is to converge on the best possible solution given uncertainties, rather than to guarantee a single correct answer.

Summary of the chapter’s core ideas

• Rhetoric is not mere fluff; it is the art of language that makes meaning and has real-world effects.
• Definitions of rhetoric from major thinkers emphasize language as a force for altering reality, shaping thought, and guiding action.
• Rhetoric has historical roots in ancient democratic Athens, with Sophists and later systematic work by Aristotle.
• The three primary rhetorical situations (deliberative, judicial/forensic, epideictic) require different kinds of discourse.
• Deliberation is a central function of rhetoric, especially in situations without definite answers; it relies on reasoned argument and the social process of discussion.
• Isocrates highlighted conjecture and deliberation as keys to arriving at the best course, reinforcing rhetoric as a collaborative search for truth rather than coercive persuasion.
• Aristotle’s distinction between artistic and non-artistic arguments guides how rhetoric constructs evidence and persuades audiences; most everyday arguments are artistic, involving crafted evidence and tailored appeals.
• Small linguistic choices can have large social consequences, as seen in the shift to the neutral 'Ms.' and in public deliberations about pressing social issues.
• The study of rhetoric combines theory with practice: understanding evidence quality, audience adaptation, and the ethical and practical implications of persuasive communication.

Key terms to know

• Deliberation
• Deliberative rhetoric
• Judicial/forensic rhetoric
• Epideictic rhetoric
• Artistic (invented) argument
• Non-artistic (inartistic) argument
• Invention (rhetorical invention)
• Antidosis (Isocrates’ text)
• Epideixis (to shine, to show forth)
• Discourse as a mode of altering reality
• Meaning and persuasion as intertwined concepts

Notable figures and references to remember

• Quintillian – "Rhetoric is the art of speaking well".
• Aristotle – rhetoric as seeing all available means of persuasion; three rhetorical situations.
• Lloyd Bitzer – rhetoric as a mode of altering reality through discourse.
• Krista Ratcliffe – rhetoric as the study of how we use language and how language uses us.
• Kenneth Burke – 'Wherever there is persuasion, there is rhetoric; wherever there is meaning, there is persuasion.'
• Isocrates – Antidosis; emphasis on conjecture and best possible course in deliberation.
• Churchill Downs – example used to illustrate deliberation, opened in $1875$.
• Isocrates’ dates: $436-338 ext{ BC}$.