TIMELINE
133
tribuneship, land bill and death of tiberius sempronius gracchus
As tribune of the plebs Tiberius Gracchus promoted the role of the people of Rome over that of the senate, turning to them first proposing an agrarian (land) bill. Bill was passed, but a group of senators who did not approve of his methods, aroused crowd against Tiberius and beat him and 300 of his supporters to death
122
tribuneship, reforms (also 123 BC) and death of Gaius Gracchus
107
First consulship of Marius; removal of financial criteria for eligibility in the Roman army
during which he commanded Roman forces in the war with Jugurtha, king of Numidia (North Africa). He was consul 7 times, unprecedent achievement. Marius was a “novus homo”, a term for someone from a family with no previous consular tradition, which made his rise and repeated consulships a significant break from Roman political norm. His actions as a consul were closely tied to his military career and his reforms of the Roman army
106
Birth of Cicero & Pompey (Sept)
M. Tullius Cicero was born into a family from the equestrian class in the hill town of Arpinum. His family was wealthy and prominent locally, but none of his ancestors had been in the senate. He was not from a senatorial family so he lacked natural support in the senate and was regarded as an outsider by the exclusive inner circle of senatorial families. Cicero could build up the support of equites through careful support of their interests, but this would not necessarily make him any friends where it mattered in the senate.
Pompey, Cn. (Gnaeus) Pompeius Magnus (equestrian family) was not a member of one of the elite families in Rome, but his family had been involved in politics since the middle of the 2nd century BC. His father had been consul, but had a bad reputation.
100
Birth of Caesar
C. Iulius Caesar was born in 100BC (patrician family), so was six years younger than Cicero and Pompey. His family had opposed Sulla, and he supported the measures to reverse Sulla’s reforms that Pompey and Crassus put forward as colleagues in 70BC, but his rise to prominence and approach to politics were very different from Pompey’s.
95
Birth of Cato
M. Porcius Cato Uticensis, (noble plebeian family) commonly known as Cato the Younger to distinguish him from his great grandfather Cato the Elder
81
Dictatorship of Sulla
After defeating Mithridates Sulla returns and marches on Rome for the second time. After defeating populares and their Italian allies he effectively ended civil war. He became dictator, using his position to eliminate political enemies through proscriptions. His reforms, which he subsequently performed, strengthened the Senate and curtail the power of the tribunes.
He was the first general to march his army on Rome, a move that set a dangerous precedent for the Roman Republic’s eventual collapse. Sulla was a leader of the optimates faction, which aimed, to preserve senatorial power against the populares and his dictatorship was marked by mass executions and proscriptions.
80
Consulship of Sulla
Cicero depends Roscius
- this was daring because he attacked Sulla's freedman in his speech ‘Pro Roscio’; Cicero’s skill was in oratory rather than military leadership, so he needed to build up clientela through advocacy
79
Retirement of Sulla
Cicero attends higher education in rhetoric at Athens and Rhodes
78
Death of Sulla
75
Quaestorship of Cicero in Sicily
Cicero’s election as quaestor in 76 BC at the youngest possible age (suo anno) enabled Cicero to enter the senate.
Cicero performed his quaestorship at Lilybaeum in Sicily competently and fairly, enabling him to build up his clientela there. However, his realised on his return to Rome that if his career were to progress he would need to keep himself in the spotlight in Rome. The choice of Cicero as prosecutor of Verres by the Sicilians and the opportunities/dangers the task offered were a consequence of his quaestorship. etc.
70
Consulship of Pompey and Crassus
Powers of the tribunate restored
Cicero prosecutes Verres
Pompey (whose career flouted Sulla’s redrafted lex Annalis) and Crassus as consuls restored the tribunes’ powers and revived the censorship, thus putting Sulla’s strengthening of the senate in general under threat.
69
Quaestorship of Caesar (Spain)
Cicero is aedile
Cicero is aedile, succusfuly defends Fonteius (governor of Gaul)
Caesar is quaestor in Spain
67
Cato is military tribune in Macedon
Pompey granted imperium against the pirates in the Mediterranean (lex Gabinia)
openly support the lex Gabinia, although he supported the deposition of the tribune opposing Gabinius. Pompey heads to Asia (Minor)/ Turkey/East and defeats Pirates.
66
Praetorship of Cicero
Pompey granted imperium against Mithridates (lex Manilia)
Having secured election to the praetorship, Cicero openly spoke at the popular assembly to gain support of the equites and Pompey in favour of Pompey's command against Mithridates (lex Manilia) which secured Pompey unprecedented powers contrary to wishes of senate (but Caesar's support was also effective and senatorial opposition was considerably weakened because of their previous failure to oppose Gabinius and Pompey's rapid and popular success against pirates) .
Pompey defeated Mithridates, increased territory, gained allies,
treasure (480 million sesterces), increased revenue / taxation (by 70%), secured peace, reorganised eastern provinces / client kingdoms, created province of Bithynia-Pontus, formed Syria from territory of Seleucids and Judaea and enlarged Cilicia.
65
Caesar is aedile
In the speech, de rege Alexandrino, Cicero argued against Crassus' attempt to annexe Egypt under terms of a probably spurious will of Ptolemy X to prevent Crassus gaining political asset and so protect Pompey’s interests. However, Pompey was not impressed by Cicero’s efforts.
64
cicero elevted consul
63
Consulship of Cicero
1 Jan - Cicero opposes Rullus' land reform bill (lex agraria)
Caesar is made Pontifex Maximus
Catiline conspiracy
Cato supports the prosecution of Lucius Licinius Murena (consul-elect) on charges of excessive bribery
5 Dec - senators debate whether Catiline's co-conspirators should be executed
In the speech in Rullum (against Rullus) Cicero prevented the apparent attempt by Crassus to gain control of available land in advance of Pompey’s return from the East with veterans and so was protecting Pompey’s long-term interest. Cicero argued against allocating land and establishing colonies in Italy and provinces by means of a normal commission of 10 on grounds that it was against the interests of Pompey. However, others have seen this as a mistake on Cicero's part with the proposal originating from Pompey.
62
Cato is tribune of the plebs; Caesar is praetor
Pompey returns for the East
Bona dea scandal
Despite Clodius’ support during the Catilinarian crisis, Cicero destroyed his alibi at the Bona Dea trial, when Clodius was prosecuted for attending the female ritual of the Bona Dea. Cicero was attempting to ingratiate himself with optimates, but Clodius was acquitted through bribery and wanted personal revenge.
Pompey returns to Italy and disbands his army, demanding land for his veterans and ratifications of his easter settlements. Divorces Mucia and requests marriage for himself with one of Cato's nieces. Cato refuses
Cato - tribune of the plebs - When a fellow-tribune - Nepos - proposed Pompey be recalled to Rome to help 'clean 'up' any remaining Catiline supporters after 63, Cato did everything he could to prevent Nepos from speaking. Such a popular and militarily powerful individual as Pompey was not welcome.
Cato passed lex frumentaria- reducing the price of grain
Caesar - praetor - supported Metellus Nepos, a tribune, in proposing controversial legislation that would recall Pompey and his army in order to quell the rising disorder in Italy.
61
Prosecution of Clodius
Caesar's governorship of Spain
Reasons for the formation of the First Triumvirate
Cicero attempts to align himself with optimates in the senate.
Pompey is angered by Cicero’s failure to persuade senate to satisfy his reasonable demands for ratification of eastern acta and land for veterans, who despite further senatorial opposition had to bring a land bill before the People using support of the populares.
Cicero regarded Crassus’ proposal for adjustment to tax collection contract on behalf ofequites as wrong but supported it to prevent further breach between senate and equites in accordance with his desire for concordia ordinum.
Caesar was unhappy because his request to stand for consulship in absentia was rejected, despite precedents and so he was forced to abandon a triumph for his campaigns in Spain. He also disapproved of the proposed proconsulship.
60
Cato proposes and has passed 2 decrees tackling agents of bribery
Senate rejects Pompey's requests for land for his veterans and to ratify his treaties in the East
Formation of the First Triumvirate
Because of Cicero’s oratory, his prestige as an ex-consul who had defeated Catiline, potential usefulness in gaining acquiescence of optimates, and his support in Italian towns, the potential damage of his opposition, Caesar wanted either to secure Cicero’s support or remove him.
Cicero rejects Caesar’s offers to join staff or go on mission at state expense to fulfil vow, because he regarded the unofficial alliance of Caesar, Pompey and Crassus (First Triumvirate) as dictatorship of 3 men attempting to secure their own interests in defiance of senatorial government and as inimical to principles of republic as individuals seeking to bypass senate and fearful of Caesar’s intentions as consul 59 BC.
Clodius also urged Cicero against going on mission and Cicero did not wish to be manipulated into leaving Rome and was disinclined to do so anyway because it would mean he was away from Rome when his brother Quintus returned from Asia
Therefore Caesar as Pontifex Maximus supported Clodius’ plebeian
adoption to enable him to become tribune.
Cato is leading a strong opposition of optimates against The Triumvirs
59
Consulship of Caesar
Clodius adopted into the plebeian order
Caesar's daughter, Julia, marries Pompey
Caesar passes legislation illegally. Campanian Law
Caesar granted imperium to pacify Gaul (lex Vatinia)
Clodius adopted into plebeian family (helped by Caesar and Pompey)
58
Tribuneship of Clodius
Cato sent to annexe Cyprus
Cicero goes into exile
Caesar begins campaigning in Gaul
57
Cicero's exile is revoked
Pompey granted imperium for five years to stabilise Rome's grain supply
56
Pompey, Caesar and Crassus re-establish the triumvirate at Luca
Cato returns
55
Consulship of Pompey and Crassus
Pompey given five-year command in Spain; Crassus given five-year command in Syria
54
Cato's praetorship
Death of Julia (Caesar's daughter, Pompey's wife)
53
Death of Crassus
52
Pompey serves as sole consul, initially, before appointing his father-in-law as co-consul
Clodius killed by rival gang leader, Milo
51
Cato stands (unsuccessfully) for the consulship Cicero is governor of Cilicia (until summer 50)
Consul Marcus Caecilius Metellus proposes that Caesar should give up his imperium
50
1 Dec - proposal that both Caesar and Pompey should give up their imperium vetoed by Cato and the optimates
49
10 Jan - Caesar crosses the Rubicon; Civil War begins
June - Cicero sails to Greece to join Pompey
48
August - Battle of Pharsalus
Death of Pompey in Egypt
Caesar becomes dictator for the first time (for 11 days) - uses this to have himself elected consul
October - Cicero arrives back in Italy
47
Caesar's dictatorship in absence
September - Caesar returns to Italy from Egypt, pardons Cicero
46
Caesar's dictatorship and third consulship
April - Cato commits suicide
45
Caesar is sole consul
Last of Pompeians defeated by Caesar in Spain; return to Rome and great honours
Cicero writes eulogy for Cato; Caesar writes the Anti-Cato
44
Caesar and Mark Antony are consuls
Feb - Caesar becomes dictator perpetuo (dictator for life); offered and rejected a crown at the Lupercalia (15 Feb)
15 March - Assassination of Caesar
Aug - Cicero leaves Rome to visit his son in Greece, but bad weather forces him to return to Rome on Sept 1
2 Sept - Cicero delivers his First Philippic (of 14)
43
Consulship of Aulus Hirtius and Gaius Vibius Pansa, both of whom die fighting against Antony in April
26 April - Antony declared an enemy of the state
August - Octavian occupies Rome and assumes the consulship
November - formation of the Second Triumvirate
7 Dec - Assassination of Cicero