Notes: Integrative Approach to Psychopathology (Chapter 2)

One-Dimensional vs. Multidimensional Models

  • One-dimensional models explain behavior in terms of a single cause (a paradigm, school, or conceptual approach).

  • They tend to ignore information from other areas.

  • Example: Explaining obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) as the result of family history alone.

  • Multidimensional models are interdisciplinary, eclectic, and integrative.

  • They posit a “system” of influences that cause and maintain suffering, drawing on information from several sources.

  • Abnormal behavior results from multiple influences rather than a single factor.

Multidimensional Models of Abnormal Behavior

  • Major influences include:

    • Biological

    • Behavioral

    • Emotional

    • Social & cultural

    • Developmental

    • Environmental

  • The model emphasizes interactions among these domains to explain psychopathology.

Example of Multidimensional Influences: Blood-Injection-Injury Phobia

  • Trigger: Blood-injury-injury cue triggers fear and vasovagal response.

  • Social Influences:

    • Judy's fainting causes disruptions in school and home.

    • Friends and family rush to help.

    • Principal suspends her.

    • Doctors say nothing is physically wrong.

  • Biological Influences:

    • Inherited overreactive sinoaortic baroreflex arc.

    • Vasovagal syncope: heart rate and blood pressure increase, body overcompensates.

    • Symptoms: light-headedness and queasiness leading to fainting.

  • Emotional and Cognitive Influences:

    • Increased fear and anxiety around the context.

  • Behavioral Influences:

    • Conditioned response to sight of blood.

    • Similar situations or even words can provoke the same reaction.

    • Tendency to escape and avoid situations involving blood.

  • Disorder: Blood-Injury-Injury Phobia is maintained by these interacting influences.

Genetic Contributions to Psychopathology

  • Phenotype vs. genotype definitions:

    • Genotype: genetic makeup; phenotype: observed traits.

  • Nature of genes:

    • DNA = deoxyribonucleic acid—the double helix

    • 23 pairs of chromosomes

    • Dominant vs. recessive genes

    • Development and behavior are often polygenetic (influenced by many genes).

  • Genetic contribution to psychopathology:

    • Less than 50% of variance in most disorders is explained by genetics.

Chromosomes (Illustrative)

  • The slide shows a normal female chromosome diagram (illustrative content).

  • Key ideas: chromosomes carry genes; many conditions involve multiple genes and their interactions with the environment.

Interaction of Genetic and Environmental Effects, Part 1

  • Eric Kandel and gene-environment interactions:

    • The genetic structure of cells can change as a result of learning experiences.

    • An inactive gene may become active because of environmental influences.

  • The diathesis-stress model:

    • Certain vulnerabilities (diatheses) interact with stress to produce disorders.

    • Examples include blood-injury-injection phobia and alcoholism.

Interaction of Genetic and Environmental Effects, Part 2

  • Figure 2.2 (Diathesis–stress model):

    • The greater the underlying vulnerability, the less stress is needed to trigger a disorder.

  • Basic representation (conceptual):

    • Disorder onset occurs when a combination of vulnerability (V) and stress (S) crosses a threshold (θ).

    • A simple formalization: if V × S ≥ θ, then the disorder manifests.

Interaction of Genetic and Environmental Effects, Part 3

  • Figure 2.3: Interaction of genes and early environment in producing adult major depression (illustrative).

  • Early environment can modulate genetic risk for later disorders.

Interaction of Genetic and Environmental Effects, Part 4

  • Reciprocal gene-environment model:

    • Outcomes are the result of interactions between genetic vulnerabilities and experiences.

    • Examples: depression, impulsivity.

  • Epigenetics and non-genomic inheritance of behavior:

    • Genes are not the whole story.

    • Environmental influences (e.g., parenting style) may override genetics in some outcomes.

Interaction of Genetic and Environmental Effects, Part 5

  • Figure 2.4: Gene–environment correlation model (rGE): genetic propensities influence the kind of environments to which one is exposed, thereby correlating genes with environment.

Neuroscience Contributions to Psychopathology, Part 1

  • The field studies the role of the nervous system in disease and behavior.

  • Branches of the nervous system:

    • Central nervous system (CNS): brain and spinal cord

    • Peripheral nervous system (PNS): somatic and autonomic branches

Neuroscience Contributions to Psychopathology, Part 2

  • Figure 2.5: Divisions of the nervous system (illustrative).

Neuroscience and the Central Nervous System, Part 1

  • The neuron structure:

    • Soma (cell body)

    • Dendrites (receive messages)

    • Axon (sends messages)

    • Axon terminals (release chemical messages)

    • Synapses (gaps between neurons)

Neuroscience and the Central Nervous System, Part 2

  • Neurons communicate chemically via neurotransmitters.

  • Neurotransmitters act as chemical messengers between brain cells.

  • Additional chemical substances include agonists, inverse agonists, and antagonists.

Neuroscience: Brain Structure Overview

  • Two main parts:

    • Brainstem: hindbrain, midbrain, thalamus, hypothalamus

    • Forebrain: limbic system, basal ganglia, cerebral cortex

  • Cerebral cortex is the largest brain region with four lobes per hemisphere.

Neuroscience and Brain Structure, Part 1

  • Hindbrain functions:

    • Medulla: heart rate, blood pressure, respiration

    • Pons: sleep stages

    • Cerebellum: motor coordination

  • Midbrain: coordinates movement with sensory input; contains parts of the reticular activating system (RAS)

Neuroscience and Brain Structure, Part 2

  • Limbic system:

    • Regulates emotional experiences and expressions; learning and impulse control

    • Key structures: hippocampus, cingulate gyrus, septum, amygdala

Neuroscience and Brain Structure, Part 3

  • Forebrain: primary sensory, emotional, and cognitive processing

  • Cerebral cortex: two hemispheres (left, right); four lobes per hemisphere with specialized functions

Neuroscience and Brain Structure, Part 4

  • Lobes of the cerebral cortex:

    • Frontal: thinking, reasoning, memory

    • Parietal: touch recognition

    • Occipital: visual input integration

    • Temporal: recognition of sights and sounds; long-term memory storage

Neuroscience and Brain Structure, Part 5

  • Figure 2.7a-c: Illustrative depictions of brain divisions and limbic system connections (content references for structure and relationships).

Neuroscience and Brain Structure, Part 6

  • Figure 2.7b: Major brain structures (illustrative).

Neuroscience and Brain Structure, Part 7

  • Figure 2.7c: The limbic system (illustrative): cingulate gyrus, anterior thalamic nuclei, septal nuclei, amygdala, hippocampus, fornix, mammillary bodies, parahippocampal gyrus.

Neuroscience and Brain Structure, Part 8

  • Figure 2.7d: The basal ganglia (illustrative): caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, thalamus, amygdala.

Neuroscience and Brain Structure, Part 9

  • Figure 2.8: Major subdivisions of the cerebral cortex and primary functions (illustrative).

Neuroscience: Peripheral Nervous System, Part 1

  • Somatic branch:

    • Controls voluntary muscles and movement

  • Autonomic branch:

    • Involuntary processes

    • Sympathetic and parasympathetic branches

    • Regulates cardiovascular system and body temperature; also regulates the endocrine system and aids in digestion

Neuroscience: Peripheral Nervous System, Part 2

  • Figure 2.9: The sympathetic nervous system (red) and parasympathetic nervous system (blue)

Neuroscience: Endocrine Systems, Part 1

  • The endocrine system: regulates release of hormones

  • The hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenocortical axis (HPA axis): integration of endocrine and nervous system function

Neuroscience: Endocrine Systems, Part 2

  • Figure 2.10: Location of major endocrine glands (illustrative)

Neurotransmitters

  • Functions:

    • Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers transmitting messages between brain cells.

    • Other chemical substances in the brain include agonists, inverse agonists, antagonists.

  • Main types:

    • Serotonin (5-HT)

    • Glutamate

    • Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

    • Norepinephrine

    • Dopamine

Serotonin

  • Also known as 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT).

  • Influences information processing, behavior, mood, and thoughts.

  • Dysregulated serotonin may contribute to depression.

  • Very low serotonin linked to instability and impulsivity.

  • Figure 2.11: Major serotonin pathways in the brain (illustrative).

  • Figure 2.12: How serotonin can be manipulated pharmacologically (illustrative).

Norepinephrine

  • Also called noradrenaline.

  • Involved in alarm responses and basic physiological processes (e.g., breathing).

  • Figure 2.13: Major norepinephrine pathways in the brain (illustrative).

Dopamine

  • Implicates in depression and ADHD; excessive dopamine linked to schizophrenia; reduced dopamine linked to Parkinson’s disease.

  • Figure 2.14: Two major dopamine pathways (illustrative): mesolimbocortical and mesostriatal systems (with ventral tegmental area, substantia nigra, basal ganglia, prefrontal cortex).

Implications of Neuroscience for Psychopathology, Part 1

  • Relations between brain and abnormal behavior: an example from OCD where brain damage affected symptoms.

  • Psychosocial influences can change brain structure and function.

Implications of Neuroscience for Psychopathology, Part 2

  • Treatments may focus on brain regions relevant to problems.

  • Psychotherapy can change brain structure and function; medications and psychotherapy are often used together.

The Contributions of Behavioral and Cognitive Science, Part 1

  • Conditioning and cognitive processes:

    • Early classical conditioning showed simple associations between two events.

    • Later research shows learning is influenced by higher-order cognitive processes.

The Contributions of Behavioral and Cognitive Science, Part 2

  • Contiguity and learning (illustrative diagram excerpts):

    • Neutral stimulus; unconditioned stimulus; contiguity.

    • Classic conditioning example: meat paired with a sound.

The Contributions of Behavioral and Cognitive Science, Part 3

  • Other types of learning:

    • Respondent and operant learning

    • Learned helplessness

    • Social learning: modeling and observational learning

    • Prepared learning

Cognitive Science and the Unconscious

  • Dissociation between behavior and consciousness possible.

  • Implicit memory: acting on experiences not recalled.

  • Blind sight: some blind individuals can sense objects in their visual field despite not experiencing sight.

  • Some experimental tests reveal implicit processing.

The Role of Emotion in Psychopathology, Part 1

  • The nature of emotion:

    • Emotions elicit action and are tied to behavior, physiology, and cognition.

    • Emotions are intimately connected to various forms of psychopathology.

The Role of Emotion in Psychopathology, Part 2

  • Components of emotion:

    • Behavior, physiology, and cognition.

    • Fear example: anxious thoughts, elevated heart rate, tendency to flee.

  • Harmful effects of emotional dysregulation:

    • Anger, hostility, sadness, anxiety can contribute to psychopathology.

    • Chronic hostile arousal and emotion suppression can have negative health consequences.

The Role of Emotion in Psychopathology, Part 3

  • Figure 2.16: Emotion has three important and overlapping components: behavior, cognition, and physiology (illustrative).

Cultural, Social, and Interpersonal Factors in Psychopathology

  • Cultural factors influence the form and expression of behavior.

  • Gender effects: men and women may differ in emotional experience and expression.

  • Social support effects on health and behavior:

    • Frequency and quality are important and relate to mortality, disease, and psychopathology.

Social Stigma of Psychopathology

  • Psychopathology is culturally, socially, and interpersonally situated.

  • Problems with social stigma:

    • May limit the degree to which people express mental health problems (e.g., concealing feelings of depression leading to inability to receive support).

    • May discourage treatment seeking.

Life-Span and Developmental Influences over Psychopathology

  • Life-span developmental perspective:

    • Addresses developmental changes; influences normal vs. abnormal.

  • Principle of equifinality (from developmental psychopathology):

    • Several paths can lead to a given outcome, paths vary by developmental stage.

Summary of the Multidimensional Perspective of Psychopathology, Part 1

  • The rule: multiple causation is the rule, not the exception.

  • Requires a broad, comprehensive, systemic perspective that includes:

    • Biological and neuroscientific

    • Cognitive and emotional

    • Social, cultural, and developmental factors

Summary of the Multidimensional Perspective of Psychopathology, Part 2

  • A multidimensional, comprehensive approach places us in the best position to:

    • Understand the causes of psychopathology

    • Alleviate and prevent psychopathology