EXAM 1

Ethics Study Guide – Exam #1

Concepts and Definitions

Aristotle’s Categories

1. Substance – What a thing is in itself (e.g., a person, a dog).

2. Quantity – How much of something there is (e.g., size, weight).

3. Relation – How one thing stands in relation to another (e.g., father to son, master to servant).

4. Quality – Describes the nature or characteristics of something (e.g., red, tall, smart).

5. When – The time something exists or occurs (e.g., in the morning, yesterday).

6. Where – The place where something exists (e.g., in the park, on the table).

7. Position – The posture or arrangement of something (e.g., sitting, standing, lying).

8. Having – What a thing possesses or has (e.g., a coat, a book).

9. Action – What a thing does (e.g., running, speaking).

10. Passion – What is done to a thing (e.g., being hit, being taught).

The Predicables

• Essential Predicables:

  • Genus – The general category a thing belongs to (e.g., animal).

  • Species – The specific kind of thing within the genus (e.g., human being).

  • Difference – The characteristic that distinguishes one species from another (e.g., rationality distinguishes humans from animals).

• Non-Essential Predicables:

  • Accidents – Traits that do not flow necessarily from the essence of a thing (e.g., pale skin does not define a human).

  • Properties – Traits that necessarily flow from the essence of a thing (e.g., the heat of fire).

Key Definitions

• Category – A type of being, or a general way of categorizing things.

• Nominal Definition of Happiness (Beatitude/Thriving) – The complete and final good at which all human action aims.

• Real Definition of Happiness (Beatitude/Thriving) – The intellectual vision of the essence of God.

• Appetite – A power or capacity that inclines a thing toward its good.

• Intellectual Appetite (Will) – A power of the soul whose object is the good in general.

Essay Questions and Answers

Plato’s Republic

1) Justice as a Kind of Art of Theft (Polemarchus & Socrates)

• Polemarchus' Definition of Justice: Justice is defined as "helping friends and harming enemies."

• Socrates’ Argument:

  1. Justice should improve people, not make them worse.

  2. If justice means harming enemies, then it makes them worse, which contradicts the idea of justice being good.

  3. People often misjudge who their true friends and enemies are.

  4. If justice involves harming enemies, we could mistakenly harm a good person.

  5. Socrates concludes that justice would be an art of theft if it were to harm enemies.

• Conclusion:

• Polemarchus rejects his definition after Socrates' critique.

• Socrates does not accept the theft conclusion but uses it to show the flaws in Polemarchus' view.

2) Glaucon’s Argument About Justice

• Part A: The Origin of Justice

  • People act justly because they fear being wronged.

  • Justice arises from the social contract: people agree to follow rules to avoid harm.

  • Justice is not inherently good; it is a necessary compromise for peace.

• Part B: The Ring of Gyges

  • The shepherd Gyges finds a ring that makes him invisible and uses it to commit crimes.

  • This suggests people only act justly because they fear punishment.

  • If no one could see them, they would act unjustly.

  • Justice is therefore something people do unwillingly, not because they love it.

Aquinas: Prima Secundae, Q. 1

A.1: Human Action vs. Act of a Human

• Human Action – Deliberate acts done with knowledge and free will (e.g., choosing to study or help someone).

• Act of a Human – Automatic actions done without rational thought (e.g., breathing, blinking).

• Key Distinction: Both are for an end, but human actions are intentional, while acts of humans are not.

A.2: Acting for an End – Is This Peculiar to Rational Beings?

• Answer: All things act for an end, but in different ways:

  • Humans and angels act with intellect and will.

  • Animals, plants, and inanimate objects act by natural inclination (e.g., a plant grows toward light).

• Analogy of the Archer:

  • An archer directs the arrow toward the target.

  • Non-rational things also act for an end, but they are directed by an external force (God).

A.7: Is There a Single Ultimate End for All Human Beings?

• Answer: Yes, Aquinas argues that there is one ultimate end, which is God or the intellectual vision of God’s essence.

• The final end is distinct from those things that answer to it. Human beings strive for God as their ultimate goal.

A.8: Do All Things Share in the Human Being’s Ultimate End?

• Answer: Not all things share in the human ultimate end.

  • The finis cuius refers to the thing itself (e.g., God as the ultimate end), while the finis quo refers to the attaining of that end (e.g., the process or actions involved in achieving it).

Aquinas: Prima Secundae, Q. 2

A.1: Does the Ultimate End Lie in Riches?

• Answer: No, the ultimate end does not lie in riches.

  • Natural riches (e.g., food, water) are necessary for survival and can support one’s pursuit of the ultimate end, but they are not the ultimate end themselves.

  • Artificial riches (e.g., money) are tools for living but are not an ultimate goal in themselves.

A.4: Does the Ultimate End Lie in Power?

• Answer: No, power is not the ultimate end.

  • While power may be useful for achieving certain goals in life, it does not constitute the final, true happiness.

  • Power can be used wrongly, and if misused, it detracts from the pursuit of the ultimate end, which is God.

A.7: Does the Ultimate Human End Lie in a Good of the Human Soul?

• Answer: The ultimate end does lie in the soul, but it is a good that belongs to the soul.

  • Beatitude or happiness involves the operation of the soul, such as knowledge, and not merely the soul’s essence.

Aquinas: Prima Secundae, Q. 3

A.1: Is Beatitude Something Uncreated?

• Answer: Yes, beatitude is not uncreated in the sense that it is a created participation in the divine.

  • It is the end for which humans are made, and is related to the vision of God's essence, but it is not uncreated itself.

A.2: Is Beatitude an Operation?

• Answer: Yes, beatitude is an operation.

  • Beatitude is not a power or merely an essence.

  • It is an act of knowing God, an intellectual operation.

A.8: Does Beatitude Lie in Seeing God’s Very Essence?

• Answer: Yes, the final beatitude lies in the intellectual vision of God’s essence.

  • Aquinas argues that ultimate happiness (beatitude) is found when the human intellect knows the essence of God because that is the highest form of knowledge.

Aquinas: Prima Secundae, Q. 4

A.4: Rectitude of the Will and Beatitude

• Rectitude of the Will – The will must be aligned with the good, seeking the right end and properly ordered.

• Required for Beatitude: Just as matter must be disposed to receive a form, the will must be disposed to align with God’s will for the attainment of beatitude.

• Analogy: Rectitude of the will is like the proper disposition of matter for the reception of a form.

A.5: Is the Body Required for Beatitude?

• Imperfect Happiness (this life): The body is necessary for happiness here, as we need it to experience joy, fulfill our potential, and live virtuously.

• Perfect Happiness (next life): Beatitude is not dependent on the body, but after the resurrection, the body will participate in beatitude.

A.7: Are External Goods Required for Beatitude?

• External Goods – These include wealth, power, fame, and other material things.

• Answer: No, external goods are not necessary for beatitude because ultimate happiness is found in God alone. However, external goods can aid in achieving temporal happiness and fulfilling our potential in this life.