psych 1
psych in 3 processes
“the scientific study of behavior and mental processes”
scientific
answering questions objectively based on observable facts, data, established methods
behavior
observable actions
mental processes
thoughts, feelings, sensations, perceptions, etc.
root of psych→ philosophy
the nature vs nurture argument
Plato
nativism
certain knowledge is innate
Aristotle
philosophical empiricism
all knowledge is gained from experience
Rene Descartes
dualism
mind + body are separate interacting entities
materialism formed as a counterargument towards this→ mind is what the brain/body does
founding of psychology
Wilhelm Wundt
uses scientific methods to study psychological processes
writes first psychology textbook
establishes first psychology research laboratory→ 1879
Structuralism
Wilhelm Wundt
promotes belief experimental methods should be used to study mental processes
Edward Tichener
student of Wundt
complex conscious experiences can be broken down into elemental parts/structures
Functionalism
advocated by William James and influenced by Darwin
focuses on how behaviors and mental processes function to allow people and animals to adapt to their environment and how these traits have evolved
William James
Harvard psychologist influential in establishing psychology in the United States
Charles Darwin
Behavioral and mental adaptations evolve via natural selection
Psychoanalysis
Sigmund Freud
unconscious mental processes shape feelings, thoughts, and behaviors
emphasis on childhood experiences + early relationships
therapy focuses on the relationship formation between therapist and patient, resistance to therapy, identification of defense mechanisms, and can involve techniques such as dream interpretation
Behaviorism
psychology redefined as the scientific study of observable behavior
Ivan Pavlov
develops the principles of classical conditioning
John Watson
extends behavioral psychology to focus human behavior
B.F. Skinner
develops the principles of operant conditioning
reinforcement/punishment shapes behavior
Humanistic Psychology
Carl Rogers
Abraham Maslow
focused on the positive potential of human beings
reaction to negative implications of Freudian and emphasis on external influences of the behaviorist school
emphasis on factors that contribute to well-being, happiness, and flourishing
Cognitive Psychology
return to an emphasis on mental processes and how they influence behavior
scientific study of perception, memory, thought, and intelligence
influenced by the emergence of the computer
the human mind as an information processing device
The Biological Revolution
neurotransmission
neuropsychopharmacology
human genome→ ~20K genes
epigenetics
neuroscience
neuroimaging techniques (EEG, fMRI, PET, TMS, etc.)
what is science?
non-dogmatic→ non-rigid set of beliefs; flexible
skeptical → withhold beliefs in truth claims until proven
empirical→ relying on evidence
cumulative
falsifiable→ able to be tested/disproven with evidence
science basics
scientific theories
organize and link observed facts
imply hypothesis that offer testable predictions
falsifiable
the scientific method
self-correcting process for asking questions and observing nature’s answers
research designs
Descriptive Studies
observational studies→ naturalistic observation
watching and recording the behavior of others in their natural environments
caveats: no control group, small sample size, hawthorn effect (people change/self-censor once aware they’re being monitored/placed in a public scenario)
case studies
intensive study of a single individual (ex. Phineas Gage)
Phineas Gage
tamping iron sent through his left eye out the top of his head
frontal lobe damaged
he was in a coma, but survived
altered behavior→ personality change from nice, agreeable into more impulsive, prone to rage, etc.
still physically capable/high functioning otherwise
Andrea Yates
killed her 5 children via drowning, then dialed 911
“heard voices the devil was after her kids, she needed to save them”
began showing signs of depression, 2 suicide attempts shortly after birthing her 4th child
admitted to psychiatric hospital afterwards→ treated for recurring postpartum depression/psychosis
had her 5th child, the mental deterioration came back→ thought of to drive her to murder her kids
Caveats to individual cases
a data point of n=1 is extremely limited scientific evidence
we are our own case studies
dramatic/personal experiences can be persuasive, but can often lead to overblown claims or dismissal of scientific findings contrary to personal experiences
ex. empirical research→ smokers die younger
personal anecdote→ “my uncle smokes 2 packs a day and is still alive at 85”
self-report methodology
interviews→ structured/unstructured one-on-one questioning
questionnaires and surveys are used to gather data from a large number of people in a short time
ex. Likert scale (shown below)
representative samples
if your sample is representative of the population, you can generalize your findings to the entire population
Correlational Research
determine an association between 2 variables
correlation coefficient (r) → the statistical measure of the relationship between 2 variables
can only range from -1→1
a positive correlation indicates frequent yoga lessons is accompanied by high energy levels, vice versa, etc.
a negative correlation indicates the frequency of the meditation routine is accompanied by less smoking, vice versa, etc.
correlation ≠ causation
ex. previous studies found watching violent tv is positively correlated with child aggression. does this mean watching these programs causes aggression?
3 possibilities: 1. watching violent tv causes aggression 2. aggressive behavior causes children to watch violent tv 3. a third, unmeasured variable that causes both (third-variable problem)
correlation and prediction
the more strongly correlated two variables are (positive+negative), the more one variable predicts the other
Experiments
experiments detect cause-effect relationships
the investigator manipulates one (independent) variable under controlled conditions and observes whether any changes occur in a second (dependent) variable as a result
independent variable (IV)
presumed “cause”
manipulated between control and experimental groups
dependent variable (DV)
presumed “effect”
the outcome of interest measure
Experimental Terms
Operational Definition→ need a clear-cut definition of how variables are measured
Experimental Group vs. Control Group→ keeping other elements in the experiment consistent vs. sham/sugar pill placebo
“Blind” + “Double Blind”→ the participants don’t know which condition is which vs. neither participants nor researchers know which condition is which
Random Assignment→ self explanatory; randomly place individuals into whatever group; the great equalizer to control for other variables that may have outside influence
Confounding Variables→ specific unknown, outside variables that may influence an experiment’s outcome; want to minimize this
genetics tldr
the human body contains trillions of cells→ almost all contain a nucleus containing the genome
genomes contain the info needed to build and maintain that organism throughout its life
genomes form into human chromosomes (numbered based on size)
chromosomes form into DNA, forming into genes
~20k genes in our genome, only ~2% of our entire genome
the rest is called non-coding DNA
these things can have a variety of functions
ex. telomeres→ literally just keeps the chromosomes intact at the end
nucleotides/bases:
Genes to Proteins
Codon/Tri-nucleotide
a sequence of 3 adjacent nucleotides
codes for a particular amino acid→ protein building block
These amino acids chain together to form a particular protein
this depends on the arrangement of tri-nucleotides that make up each gene
proteins then direct the biochemical life of the cells that form humans
enzyme
acts as a “construction worker” within the cell
memorize this
mutations
gene replication can make mistakes
mutations can happen, most generally neutral but can accumulate over a generation→ can be heritable
ex. single-letter mistakes
FOXP2 gene + language
exclusively human mutation
found in all vertebrates, including all mammals/primates
humans have a mutation within this that results in a difference of 2 amino acids compared to chimpanzees
this variant significantly alters neuron development/functionality in the human brain and motor networks
tldr we go from weird noises to actually speaking
people with impairments within this gene leads to speech defect
history
a family was researched with this language disorder/speech deficiency
1st genetic study traced it to chromosome 7→ “speech 1”
an unconnected child with the same defect was brought into the study
tests on the new child→ chunks of chromosome 7 was broken off
the family had this same issue
huntington’s disease
affects motor skills
degenerative disease→ fatal
huntington’s chorea→ symptom of jerky, involuntary movements
caused by a single mutation in a single gene
1 gene has many codons that are like a chain
within the huntington gene
with ≤ 35 codons→ no huntington’s disease
with ≥ 40 codons→ huntington’s disease
tldr→ elongated protein chain leads to ill-functioning amino acids/proteins and they kill themselves because they don’t work right (apoptosis)
if your parent has huntington’s, you have a 50% chance of developing it
it is a dominant trait→ will always be expressed
early-onset version is from a large amount of codons (ex. 60+)
genes and environment
both genes/environment interact to shape most human psychology and behavior
behavior genetics
ex.1 studying twins (identical/fraternal)
identical twins are more alike in personality/intelligence, etc.
ex.2 adoptive children studies
heritability
the extent of which variations among people within a group are influenced by genes
environments and experience
early postnatal experiences can affect brain development
ex.
not only more activity in certain parts of brain after training, there are changes in brain structure
our experiences can alter our DNA
telomeres shorten as we age
chronic stress accelerates telomere shortening→ accelerated aging
enzyme telomerase may heal the telomeres
gene + environment interacions
violence/criminal behavior
associated with MAO A gene→lack of/low activity + childhood maltreatment= more violent crimes
prenatal development
zygote→ fertilized egg with ~100 cells that become increasingly diverse
2 weeks after conception, zygote→ embryo
organogenesis→ major organ systems begin to take shape
at 9 weeks, embryo→ fetus
major organ systems continue to grow/specialize
teratogens
chemicals/viruses that can enter the placenta and harm the developing embryo/fetus
anything that can make the pregnancy go wrong
prenatal exposure to teratogens
fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (fasd)
drinking alcohol during pregnancy leads to child born with this
associated with small brains, major body/facial deformities, intellectual disability, hyperactivity, seizures
newborns
born with reflexes that aid in survival
ex. rooting/grasping/crying
comforted by touch, rocking/familiar noises
comforted from either fear/pain when they are exposed to the odors from their mother’s milk
recogize + prefer parents’ voices, and the faces of their caregivers within a few months after birth
temperament
a baby’s characteristic emotional reactivity/intensity
one way to classify temperament is to assess the degree which children are
behaviorally inhibited (shy, fearful, high-reactive)
behaviorally uninhibited (bold, positive mood, low-reactive)
temperament may change drastically with environmental changes (ex. abuse/bullying)
attachment
the emotional bond that forms between newborns and their caregivers
harry harlow’s monkey experiments
monkeys separated from biological mothers, raised by artificial
1 artificial mother with food, 1 with cloth coating
monkeys always preferred the cloth mother even though it had no food
harlow showed that infants bond with surrogate mothers because of bodily contact and not nourishment
oxytocin levels increase with childhood affection
kids raised in orphanages still have lack of oxytocin levels in adulthood, even if adopted into loving families
maternal care in rats
moms lick their babies as a form of affection
low-licking → akin to neglect
high-licking→ good for affection, tactile stimulation
epigenetic effects, higher brain function/more receptors
better responses to stress
attachment theory/attachment styles
John Bowlby
developed the basic principles of “attachment theory”
heavily influenced by Darwin and Harlow
attachment is an evolved mechanism that facilitates the survival of helpless offspring
Mary Ainsworth
developed a classic procedure for classifying different patterns of attachment
the strange situation paradigm and attachment styles
bring child/parent into laboratory
put them in a strange room, observe what happens for a few minutes
send in random stranger to sit there a few minutes in, observe
mom was told to leave the room a little while later, observe the child
mom came back in the room, observe reunion
attachment styles
secure attachment
easily engaged in exploration in caregiver’s presence
not unduly wary of stranger
under stress, they signal needs
actively seek proximity and contact, but tolerates absence
comforted by mom when she returns
insecure attachment (avoidant)
engages in minimal exploration
avoids/ignores caregiver
does not exhibit distress upon separation
caregiver and stranger often treated similarly
insecure attachment (anxious-ambivalent)
impoverished exploration
mere presence not reassuring
mixed reactions towards caregiver (ex. sometimes clingy, sometimes angry rejection of caregiver’s comfort)
wary of stranger
disorganized attachment
fear their caregivers
prefer the stranger
role of parenting styles
parents who exhibit high levels of warmth, support, and concern tend to have children who are more likely to exhibit:
secure attachment
high self-reliance
high social competence
high self-esteem
low aggression
attachment is based on learned expectations
attachment continues in other relationships
from parents to peers→ our close friends become our attachment figures
from peers to romantic partner→ our partners become attachment figures
we rely on them for comfort in times of need
attachment in romantic relationships
secure adult attachment style
easy to get close to others
happy, friendly, trusting relationships
minimal worrying about abandonment
more satisfied, committed, intimate
more responsive to partner’s needs
anxious/ambivalent adult attachment style
may have difficulty establishing romantic relationships due to fear of rejection
seeks intimacy but worries that partner won’t reciprocate or stay committed
more likely to show high levels of jealousy
avoidant adult attachment style
uncomfortable getting emotionally close to others
fear of intimacy and/or committment
more likely to have brief sexual encounters
use work/sports/etc. to maintain “space”
autism spectrum disorder
persistent deficits in social communication and social interaction across multiple contexts
parents may notice-
avoidance of eye contact
difficulty expressing feelings
not understanding facial expressions
difficulty understanding language subtleties (ex. sarcasm), etc.
restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities
parents may notice-
preference for routines, and anxiety/anger when a routine is broken
unusal rituals/ways of playing with toys
repetitive motions, such as rocking/flapping hands
saying a word or phrase repeatedly (echolalia)
unusual sensory behaviors, etc.
diagnosis also specifies-
“with or without language impairment” → ~40% are nonverbal
“with or without intellectual impairment” → ~35% have impairment
symptoms typically recognized between ages 1-4
many individuals display “regressive phenotypes”
normal development followed by rapid deterioration often before age 2
prevalence
1 in 36 births in the US (2.8%)
sex differences
3-4x more common among boys than girls
comorbidity with epilepsy, anxiety/mood disorders, adhd, gastrointestional issues (ex. ARFID)
asperger’s is no longer an official diagnosis in DSM-5
now diagnosed as “autism spectrum disorder without language/intellectual impairment”
~400 genes shown to be associated with autism
most genes involved with protein synthesis for synaptic function in the brain
risk for the majority of cases are polygenic (possibly hundreds of genetic loci making relatively small contributions)
other risk factors
prenatal exposure to fever
maternal metabolic conditions (ex. diabetes, obesity) during pregnancy
lack of maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy
increased parental age
having an older sibling with autism
autism is not a degenerative disorder
developmental gains typical in later childhood in at least some areas
many people with autism report “masking” in public social situations, can find a niche that matches special interests/skills, etc.
cognitive development
jean piaget
studied errors in cognition made by children to understand in what ways they think differently than adults
considered the father of modern developmental psychology
piagetian terminology
schema
concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
assimilation
interpreting new experiences in terms of existing schema
accommodation
adapting current schemas to incorporate new information
piaget’s stage 1
sensorimotor (birth-2 years)
infants acquire information about the world by sensing it and moving around within it
object permanence
the idea that objects continue to exist even when not visible
emerges around 8 months
able to recognize themselves in a mirror closer to ~1 1/2 years
piaget’s stage 2
preoperational (2-7 years)
have basic understanding of the physical world
use visual models to represent other places and perform pretend play
display egocentric thinking at the beginning of this stage
theory of mind
awareness that other people have minds of their own and they may hold different feelings/thoughts/perceptions than our own
develops around age 4
piaget’s stage 3
concrete operational (7-12 years)
children can think logically about concrete events, grasp concrete analogies and perform arithmetic operations
grasp the concept of conservation
ex. mass/volume/number of things may remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects→ same amount of water in different shaped glasses
piaget’s stage 4
formal operational (12-adulthood)
individuals can now think logically about abstract concepts
the emergence of hypothetical thinking
capability of solving hypothetical problems and deducing consequences
moral reasoning becomes more sophisticated
neurons and neurotransmission
basic structure of a neuron
dendrites
receive incoming information
axon
the sending end of neurons
types of neurons
sensory neurons
body→ nervous system
motor neurons
nervous system→ body
interneurons
local connectors within spinal cord + brain
mirror neurons
helps us to process our own and other peoples’ emotions/behaviors
how do neurons work?
resting potential
difference in electrical charge (voltage) between the inside/outside of the neuron at rest
electrical voltage inside is -70mV→ hyperpolarized state
high concentration of sodium ions (Na+) outside neutron
high concentration of potassium ions (K) inside neutron
action potential
a brief reversal of electron polarization of the nuron
sodium/potassium pump
na+ concentration is higher inside the cell immediately after action potential
k+ concentration is lower inside cell immediately after action potential
a mechanism called the Na+/K+ pump restores ion balance and reestablishes resting potential
propagation of the action potential
action potential gets sent (propagated) down the axon
wave of sodium (Na+) entry
wave of potassium (K+) exit
the speed of electrical conductance depends on whether the axon has a myelin sheath
no myelin= continuous conduction (baby steps, slow)
myelinated= saltatory conduction (faster process)
gray matter
somas and dendrites
white matter
myelinated axons and glial cells
synapse and neurotransmitters
synapse
short range chemical messengers
gap between neurons
neurotransmitters get dumped into the synapse when the action potential reaches the axon terminal, then attach to receptor proteins on the receiving neuron’s dendrites
specific neurotransmitters bind to specific receptor sites like keys→ lock
synaptic vesicles
contain chemical messages (neurotransmitters)
end of the axon
excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters
transmission across the synapse does not necessarily result in an action potential
excitatory neurotransmitters
depolarize the post-synaptic membrane
increased likelihood of action potential
inhibitory neurotransmitters
hyperpolarize the post-synaptic membrane
decreased likelihood of action potential
all communications are added together
with enough excitation, the receiving neuron will produce an action potential in an “all or none” fashion
terminating synaptic transmission
reuptake
“vacuuming” back molecules to recycle/reuse
ex. antidepressants (SSRIs) block the reuptake
enzyme deactivation
releasing enzymes that attach to neurotransmitters and rip them apart, then put them back together
common neurotransmitters
acetylcholine (ACh)
released by motor neurons controlling skeletal muscles
always involved in muscle activity
regulation of attention, arousal, memory
some receptors stimulated by nicotine
dopamine (DA)
contributes to control of voluntary movement
cocaine/amphetamines elevate activity at DA synapses
dopamine circuits in medial forebrain bundle
tldr→ reward pathway
norepinephrine (NE)
mood/arousal modulation
cocaine/amphetamines elevate activity at NE synapses
serotonin
sleep/wakefulness regulation, eating, aggression
prozac and similar antidepressant drugs affect serotonin circuits
GABA
serves as widely distributed inhibitory transmitter
anxiety and sleep/arousal regulation
valium and similar antianxiety drugs work at GABA synapses
glutamate
serves as widely distributed excitatory transmitter
involved in learning/memory
endorphins
natural steroids
resemble opiate drugs in structure/effects
pain relief/stress response
contributes to regulation of eating behavior