Amsco unit 1 chapter 1 notes

Christopher Columbus Quotes:
- "Thirty-three days after my departure from [the Canary Islands] I reached the Indian Sea, where I discovered many islands, thickly peopled, of which I took possession without resistance in the name of our most illustrious monarch, by public proclamation and with unfurled banners."
- Source: Christopher Columbus, Select Letters, 1493.

Timeline of Settlement:
- Original discovery and settlement occurred at least 10,000 years before Columbus.
- Some archaeologists estimate the first people settled in North America 40,000 years ago.
Migration Theories:
- Migrants from Asia crossed a land bridge connecting Siberia and Alaska (now submerged under the Bering Sea).
- Successive generations migrated south from the Arctic Circle to South America.
Diversity of Cultures:
- Hundreds of tribes emerged, each with different languages and cultures. Population estimates in the Americas in the 1490s range from 50 million to 100 million.

The Mayas:
- Established cities near A.D. 300-800 in the Yucatán Peninsula (modern Guatemala, Belize, southern Mexico).
The Aztecs:
- Developed a powerful empire in central Mexico after the Mayas.
- Population of Tenochtitlán: approximately 200,000, rivaling Europe’s largest cities.
The Incas:
- Based in Peru, they created a vast empire throughout South America.
Cultural Similarities:
- All three civilizations had organized societies, engaged in extensive trade, and developed calendars based on scientific observations.
- Staple crops included:
- Corn (Maya, Aztec)
- Potatoes (Inca)

Population Estimates:
- North of Mexico (present-day U.S. and Canada) population estimates ranged from 1 million to over 10 million in the 1490s.
Societal Characteristics:
- Native societies were generally less complex than in Central and South America, partly due to a slower adaptation of corn cultivation.
- Most lived in semipermanent settlements of up to 300 people, practiced hunting, gathering, and farming.

Arctic/Subarctic:
- Small tribes adapted to harsh climates.
Northeast:
- Included the Iroquois Confederation, composed of five tribes (Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida, and Mohawk).
Northwest Coast:
- Permanent longhouses, rich diets from hunting and gathering.
Great Plains:
- Nomadic hunters versus sedentary farmers. Tribes like the Lakota Sioux transitioned from farming to hunting post-horse acquisition.
Midwest Settlements:
- Adena-Hopewell culture known for earthen mounds.
- Cahokia had populations up to 30,000.
Southwest:
- Hokokam and Anasazi civilizations involved in farming using irrigation.

Language Families:
- Over 20 language families in American Indian languages, totaling more than 400 distinct languages.
- Largest: Algonquian (Northeast), Siouan (Great Plains), and Athabaskan (Southwest).

Technological Advances:
- The Renaissance sparked improvements in navigation technologies and shipbuilding along with the printing press aiding knowledge diffusion.
Religious Conflict:
- Struggles between Catholics and Protestants during the Reformation fueled exploration as countries sought to spread their version of Christianity.
Economic Motives:
- Increased competition for trade routes to Asia due to the Ottoman control of Constantinople while searching for quicker routes.
Slavery:
- Established by the Portuguese to support plantations leading to a systematic use of slave labor in the Americas.
Nation-States Development:
- Formation of centralized states like Spain and Portugal seeking resources abroad.

Columbus's Expedition:
- Successfully sought support from Isabella and Ferdinand of Spain who funded his voyage.
- Landed in the Bahamas on October 12, 1492.

Columbus's Legacy:
- Viewed variably as a hero and a conqueror.
- Brought about sustained contact between Europe and the Americas and initiated changes from the Columbian Exchange.

Plants and Animals:
- Introduction of crops: beans, corn, potatoes, and tobacco to Europe.
- Procured items: sugar cane, horses, and iron from Europe to the Americas.
Disease:
- Imported diseases like smallpox caused massive native population declines (mortality rate over 90%).

Line of Demarcation:
- Drawn by Pope Alexander VI in 1493, granting Spain rights over lands to the west and Portugal to the east.
- Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) realigned the division favoring Portuguese claims to Brazil.

Conquistadores' Achievements:
- Significant conquests by Hernan Cortés and Francisco Pizarro enriched Spain, contributing to its wealth and power.
Encomienda System:
- Labor system where Spanish settlers forced indigenous peoples to work in return for supposed protection and Christianization.

Spanish Settlements:
- Established St. Augustine in 1565, the oldest continuously inhabited European-established settlement in the continental United States.

Spanish Views of Natives:
- Interactions often led to exploitation. Bartolomé de Las Casas advocated for better treatment of natives.

Las Casas vs. Sepúlveda Debate:
- Las Casas argued for equality, while Sepúlveda contended natives were inferior beings- needing leadership from Spaniards. No definitive conclusion.

Continuing Legacy of Colonization:
- Ongoing debate regarding Columbus as either a heroic figure or a ruthless conqueror. His voyages set the stage for extensive European colonization and the complex interactions between Europeans and natives worldwide.