APUSH TEST 1
Post-Civil War Indifference to Foreign Affairs:
Americans focused on Reconstruction, industrialization, urbanization, and westward expansion.
Little interest in international affairs during this period.
The reason why Americans wanted to expand was that they had a growth in population, wealth, and production, with labor violence and agrarian unrest fueling it. Overseas markets were thought to release this pressure.
Shift in U.S. Foreign Policy:
Late 19th century marked a significant change as the U.S. became more engaged internationally.
Agricultural and industrial growth pushed the U.S. to seek overseas markets.
Rising imperial ambitions reflected broader global trends in the "age of empire."
Imperialist Motivations:
Economic pressures from labor unrest and agrarian struggles drove interest in overseas expansion.
The "yellow press" glamorized foreign exploits.
Missionaries, inspired by Josiah Strong's book Our Country: Its Possible Future and Its Present Crisis, sought to spread American values and Christianity.
Advocates like Theodore Roosevelt and Henry Cabot Lodge used Social Darwinism to justify expansion.
Global Context and Competition:
European nations' colonial activities, particularly in Africa and China, influenced U.S. aspirations.
Alfred Thayer Mahan's book (The Influence of Sea Power upon History) emphasized the importance of naval power, sparking a naval arms race and interest in building a canal.
American Diplomacy:
James G. Blaine’s "Big Sister" policy aimed to strengthen ties with Latin America, culminating in the first Pan-American Conference (1889).
Several diplomatic crises (e.g., with Germany, Italy, Chile, and Canada) showcased America’s growing assertiveness.
American and German navies nearly came to blows in 1889 over the Samoan Islands in the South Pacific. The lynching of eleven Italians in New Orleans in 1891 brought America and Italy to the brink of war, and the crisis was defused when the U.S. paid compensation. American demands on Chile after the death of two American sailors in the port of Valparaiso in 1892 made hostilities between the two countries seem inevitable. Canada and America were arguing over seal hunting near the Pribilof Islands. Overall, America seemed to be more aggressive with other countries.
Venezuelan Boundary Dispute:
The U.S. invoked the Monroe Doctrine to challenge British influence in a border dispute between Venezuela and British Guiana.
The reason why Venezuela was entered was because of gold.
Richard Olney declared to Britain that they were breaking the Monroe Doctrine. Britain denied.
Cleveland sent a message to Congress urging for a takeover with a commission of experts and if Britain didn’t accept it, they would fight for it.
A peaceful resolution enhanced the Monroe Doctrine's prestige and marked the "Great Rapprochement" with Britain.
Britain didn’t fight since their ships were vulnerable and Canada was not strong enough at the time.
Russia, France, and Germany (who were under Kaiser Wilhelm II) challenged naval supremacy by capturing a British raider ship with 600 men in South Africa, because of this, Britain refused to fight.
Latin American republics were pleased with Cleveland protecting them.
Hawaiian Annexation Debate:
Hawaii was first used as a provision station for the Yankee shippers, and whalers.
The U.S. tightened control over Hawaii through treaties and economic ties, which was further strengthened in 1875 by commercial reciprocity agreements and a treaty in 1887 with the native government.
The McKinley Tariff taxes Hawaiian Sugar, and the Queen’s response to annexation was negative.
The overthrow of Queen Liliuokalani in 1893 and the subsequent annexation debate highlighted imperialistic tensions.
The annexation was delayed until 1898 due to President Cleveland’s opposition.
Cuban Struggle for Independence:
Economic hardships and Spanish misrule led to a Cuban revolt in 1895. Mainly a high tariff on Sugar production.
Spanish rule in Cuba also messed up shipping routes of the West Indies and the gulf Of Mexico. The U.S. also had an investment stake with Cuba and and annual trade stake.
The U.S. was economically invested and sympathetic to Cuban independence.
Butcher Weyler’s Spanish "reconcentration camps" and sensationalist "yellow journalism" fueled public outrage.
Yellow Journalism and War Sentiment:
Media magnates Hearst and Pulitzer sensationalized Cuban atrocities to stir public opinion.
Exaggerated or fabricated stories escalated tensions between the U.S. and Spain.
Frederick Remington helped Hearst by painting evidence to the fake and fabricated stories.
Spanish-American Relations and the Prelude to War
Depiction of Spanish Cruelty:
Newspapers sensationalized events, like Spanish customs officials disrobing American women, misleading the public since female attendants handled such tasks.
Political Tensions in Cuba:
Spanish Governor "Butcher" Weyler was removed in 1897, but unrest persisted.
Spain's consideration of Cuban self-government was fiercely opposed by Spaniards in Cuba, leading to riots.
USS Maine Sent to Cuba:
In January 1898, the U.S. dispatched the battleship Maine to Havana to protect American citizens amid tensions.
Escalation to War
De Lôme Letter (February 9, 1898):
A stolen private letter by the Spanish minister, Dupuy de Lôme, insulted President McKinley as weak, inciting outrage and his resignation.
Explosion of the Maine (February 15, 1898):
The Maine mysteriously exploded in Havana Harbor, killing 260 sailors.
U.S. and Spanish investigations conflicted on the cause (mine vs. accidental coal combustion). Public outrage blamed Spain. Accidental coal combustion was the correct answer to this.
Media and public response included the cry, “Remember the Maine! To hell with Spain!”
McKinley’s Reluctant War Declaration (April 11, 1898):
Despite initial resistance, President McKinley succumbed to public, political, and media pressure.
Congress issued a war declaration, accompanied by the Teller Amendment, promising Cuban independence after Spanish overthrow.
Military Campaigns
Dewey’s Victory at Manila (May 1, 1898):
Many powers were supporting America in this war.
John. D Long and Theodore Roosevelt made the navy well ready for this war.
Commodore George Dewey destroyed the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay with no U.S. casualties.
He waited for reinforcements to secure Manila.
Germany and Britain maneuvered for influence, with tensions defused diplomatically.
The U.S. annexed Hawaii as a strategic base (July 7, 1898).
Dewey worked with Emilio Aguinaldo and captured Manila on August 13, 1898.
Invasion of Cuba:
Admiral Cervera’s Spanish fleet was blockaded in Santiago Harbor.
General William Shafter’s American forces, including Theodore Roosevelt's Rough Riders, landed in Cuba. They were commanded by Leonard Wood.
Notable battles: San Juan Hill and El Caney (July 1, 1898).
The Spanish fleet was destroyed on July 3, and Santiago surrendered soon after.
Puerto Rico Campaign:
U.S. forces, led by General Nelson A. Miles, faced little resistance and were welcomed as liberators.
End of the War and Treaty of Paris
Ceasefire (August 12, 1898):
Spain signed an armistice, ending major hostilities.
Illness ravaged the U.S. army, causing more deaths than combat.
Negotiations in Paris:
Spain relinquished Cuba and ceded Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines to the U.S.
McKinley faced a dilemma over the Philippines but decided to annex them to avoid anarchy, foreign intervention, or global conflict.
The Anti-Imperialist League fought against the McKinley administration's expansionist moves. Notable people like Mark Twain, Andrew Carnegie, and even Professor James of Harvard were all anti-imperialists.
12. Aftermath of Puerto Rico and Cuba.
The Foraker Act of 1900 gave Puerto Ricans a limited government, and received citizenship in 1917, in which most of them came to New York. Beginning in 1901, with the Insular Cases, Supreme Court was divided on the Filipino and Puerto Rican rules and regulations they can have. Yellow Fever also was wrecking Havana, Cuba, until Dr. Walter Reed found out that mosquitos carried it. The Cubans wrote their own constitution in 1901 called the Platt Amendment.
Key Outcomes
Territorial Gains:
U.S. acquired Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines, solidifying its imperial presence.
Casualties:
Approximately 400 combat deaths, but over 5,000 deaths due to disease.
Cuban Independence:
Promised under the Teller Amendment, though U.S. influence lingered through the Platt Amendment.
Americans were haughty and excited, with new music composed by John Philip Sousa ,and were very enthusiastic about winning the war. Elihu Root asl took over the reins at the War Department and founded a college in Washington. Joseph Wheeler (Confederate Hero) was also in the Spanish-American war.
The Philippine-American War (1899–1902)
Background:
Filipinos expected freedom like the Cubans after the Spanish-American War but were denied by the U.S. Senate.
The open insurrection began on February 4, 1899, under Emilio Aguinaldo.
The war was prolonged, brutal, and marked by atrocities from both sides.
Conflict Details:
Guerrilla warfare ensued as Filipino forces retreated to the jungle.
Both Filipinos and American soldiers employed barbaric methods, including the use of "water cure" torture and reconcentration camps.
Anti-imperialists in the U.S. criticized the war as hypocritical, contrasting with the initial ideals of liberating oppressed peoples.
Resolution and Aftermath:
Emilio Aguinaldo was captured in 1901, breaking the backbone of the rebellion.
President McKinley implemented "benevolent assimilation," with efforts in infrastructure, education, and public health.
Despite efforts, Filipinos resisted Americanization and longed for liberty, which they eventually achieved on July 4, 1946.
The Philippine Commission was headed by William H. Taft, who befriended the Filipinos.
The Open Door Policy in China
Context:
Post-1895, European powers, including Russia and Germany, exploited China’s weakness for economic and territorial gains.
The U.S. feared exclusion from Chinese markets and missionary efforts.
John Hay's Open Door Note (1899):
Proposed respecting Chinese sovereignty and fair trade competition.
Accepted conditionally by major powers except Russia, whose refusal was misinterpreted as acceptance.
Boxer Rebellion (1900):
Patriotic Chinese “Boxers” revolted, killing foreigners and besieging Beijing’s diplomatic quarter.
A multinational force, including U.S. troops, quelled the rebellion.
Aftermath:
China was forced to pay a $333 million indemnity, of which the U.S. returned $18 million for Chinese education in America.
The Open Door Policy was extended to protect China’s territorial integrity.
Presidential Election of 1900
Candidates:
Republican: President William McKinley with Vice President Theodore Roosevelt.
Democrat: William Jennings Bryan, focusing on anti-imperialism and opposing trusts. He was still advocating for free silver.
Issues:
Republicans championed prosperity, the gold standard, and imperial expansion.
Democrats attacked imperialism, likening it to slavery, but struggled due to Bryan's outdated free-silver advocacy.
Results:
McKinley won decisively (7.2 million to 6.4 million popular votes).
Victory was more about economic stability than a mandate on imperialism.
Theodore Roosevelt's Rise to Presidency
Background:
Roosevelt, a war hero, became governor of New York but was pushed into the vice presidency by party bosses.
McKinley’s assassination in September 1901 elevated Roosevelt to the presidency at age 42. He got shot by a deranged anarchist, and Roosevelt was the youngest president at the time.
Personality and Leadership:
Energetic, boyish, and combative, Roosevelt embraced a “big stick” foreign policy.
A charismatic and unconventional leader, he mixed reformist ideals with pragmatic compromises.
Advocated direct presidential action, often bypassing traditional checks and balances.
Public Appeal:
Roosevelt’s dynamic personality and populist image made him widely admired.
His leadership style prioritized action and progress, even if it meant stretching constitutional boundaries.
Foreign Policy: Colombia and the Panama Canal (Early 1900s)
Roosevelt’s Vision:
Committed to securing a canal in Central America for military and trade advantages.
Negotiations with Colombia for canal rights stalled, reflecting Roosevelt’s impatience with obstacles to his vision.
The Hay-Paucefonte Treaty in 1901 gave the green light to built the Panama Canal, and fortify it.
Impact:
This initiative showcased Roosevelt’s focus on expanding U.S. influence abroad through assertive diplomacy and infrastructure projects.
Panama and the Canal
Uprising in Panama (1903):
Three days after the uprising, Roosevelt recognized Panama.
Phillippe Bunau-Varilla made a tiny army and started the Panama Revolution in 1903, with the killing of a Chinese civilian and a donkey.
15 days later, the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty was signed:
Canal zone widened from 6 to 10 miles.
U.S. paid $40 million to the French company for canal rights.
The Treaty first failed when America asked for it to be 6 mi. Wide and a recurring payment of $250,000 with a $10M payment first.
Roosevelt’s Role:
He did not actively plot Panama's secession from Colombia but expressed views that encouraged conspirators.
His involvement led to accusations of "cowboy diplomacy," tarnishing the U.S. image internationally.
European imperialists mocked America’s moral claims due to the U.S. behavior in Panama.
Impact on Latin America:
U.S. relations with Latin America worsened, as the incident reinforced fears of Yankee dominance.
“Big Brother” policy was launched, showcasing U.S. willingness to bully weaker nations.
Canal Completion:
Active work began in 1904 under Colonel George Washington Goethals.
Sanitation, led by Colonel William C. Gorgas, eradicated yellow fever, ensuring the Canal Zone’s safety.
Completed in 1914 at a cost of $400 million.
Described by James Bryce as “the greatest liberty Man has ever taken with Nature.”
The Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine (1904)
Context:
Latin American nations defaulted on debts to European powers (e.g., Venezuela, Dominican Republic).
German warships attacked Venezuela to force payment, threatening the Monroe Doctrine.
Policy Introduction:
Roosevelt's “preventive intervention” policy:
U.S. would intervene in Latin America to manage and pay of debts and prevent European intervention.
The U.S. became the "Policeman of the Caribbean."
Application:
In 1905, U.S. took over Dominican Republic’s tariff collections to pay off debts.
The policy strained relations with Latin America, fostering resentment toward U.S. interventions.
Legacy:
The Corollary diverged from Monroe’s original intent (“Thou shalt not intervene”) to “We shall intervene to prevent you from intervening.”
The doctrine justified frequent U.S. interventions, leading to the "Bad Neighbor" policy and turning the Caribbean into a "Yankee lake."
Global Diplomacy: Roosevelt’s Role
Russia-Japan War (1904–1905):
Roosevelt mediated peace talks at Portsmouth, NH, after Japan sought his help.
Result:
Japan gained half of Sakhalin but no indemnity, angering both sides.
Roosevelt won the Nobel Peace Prize (1906) for his efforts but strained relations with Russia and Japan.
Japan-U.S. Tensions:
Japanese immigration to the U.S. faced racist hostility, particularly in California.
San Francisco School Board Crisis (1906):
Segregation of Asian students caused an international crisis.
Resolved with the Gentlemen’s Agreement (1907–1908):
Japan stopped issuing passports for laborers to the U.S.; California rescinded the segregation order.
Great White Fleet (1907–1909):
Roosevelt sent 16 battleships on a global tour to showcase U.S. naval power.
Highlight: Warm reception in Japan led to the Root-Takahira Agreement (1908):
Mutual respect for Pacific territories and the Open Door policy in China.
Key Themes and Legacy
"Big Stick" Diplomacy:
Roosevelt’s aggressive foreign policies showcased U.S. strength but alienated Latin America.
While effective in achieving short-term goals, the long-term result was resentment and mistrust.
Global Statesmanship:
Roosevelt’s interventions, such as in the Russia-Japan war and the Great White Fleet, elevated U.S. status on the world stage but strained relations with other nations.
Asian Relations:
Roosevelt's policies sought to balance power but contributed to growing U.S.-Japan rivalry.
Impact on U.S. Image:
Roosevelt’s actions solidified the U.S. as a global power but also a domineering neighbor, particularly in Latin America.
Notes on Early 20th Century America and the Progressive Era
Context and Demographics (1900-1914)
Population: Nearly 76 million Americans in 1900, with 1 in 7 foreign-born.
Immigration: 13 million immigrants arrived between 1900-1914.
Reform Movements: A new wave of progressivism emerged, aimed at addressing societal evils like monopoly, corruption, inefficiency, and social injustice.
Progressives’ Goal: Use government as a tool for human welfare.
Roots of Progressivism
Historical Influences:
Greenback Labor Party (1870s) and Populists (1890s).
Opposition to industrial monopolies concentrating wealth and power.
Shift from Laissez-Faire:
The philosophy of “hands-off individualism” was deemed inadequate in the modern machine age.
Advocated for government intervention to solve complex social and economic problems.
SOCIALISTS - Many of them were immigrants who were gaining political strength. High-minded messengers of the social gospel promoted teachings of Progressivism which were based on Christian teachings. Feminists added social justage to suffrage on their list of reforms.
Key Figures and Early Reform Efforts
Reformers targeted monopolies and social injustice:
William Jennings Bryan, John Altgeld, and the Populists denounced corporate corruption.
Writers:
Henry Demarest Lloyd: Wealth Against Commonwealth (1894) criticized Standard Oil.
Thorstein Veblen: The Theory of the Leisure Class (1899) attacked conspicuous consumption.
Jacob Riis: How the Other Half Lives (1890) exposed NYC slums.
Theodore Dreiser: Critiqued profiteers in novels like The Financier (1912).
The Muckrakers
Rise of Investigative Journalism:
Magazines like McClure’s, Cosmopolitan, and Collier’s exposed corruption.
Term “Muckrakers”: Coined by President Theodore Roosevelt (1906).
These people were exposing the secrets and corruptions of big businesses and the government.
Notable Works:
Lincoln Steffens: The Shame of the Cities revealed ties between big business and government.
Ida Tarbell: Exposed Standard Oil’s practices (inspired by her father's ruin).
David G. Phillips: The Treason of the Senate accused senators of serving corporate interests. He said that 75/90 senators only represented railroads and trusts. He was shot in 1911 by a deranged young man.
Thomas W. Lawson - made $50M in the stock market published articles about his practices, which made his associates become rich and he died a poor man.
John Spargo: Highlighted child labor abuses in The Bitter Cry of the Children (1906).
Ray Stannard Baker: Discussed racial inequality in Following the Color Line (1908). She talked about how ⅓ of the 8.1M blacks of the south were illiterate.
The most effective muckraker stories were the ones about social evils, like immoral traffic of women, rickety sums, and industrial accidents. Potent patent medicines also got criticism.
They depended a lot on publicity and aroused public conscience and not political change.
Progressive Reforms and Policies
They were mainly middle class men and women who felt stuck.
Goals:
Regulate trusts and improve living/working conditions.
Push for direct primary elections, initiative, referendum, and recall to empower voters.
Eliminate graft through campaign finance laws and secret ballots.\
First objective was to regain power that had slipped from the hands of the people.
Achievements:
17th Amendment (1913): Direct election of U.S. Senators.
Advocacy for women’s suffrage grew, supported by progressives to elevate political tone.
Progressivism at Local and State Levels
Urban Reforms:
Cities like Galveston, TX, pioneered expert-led commissions for governance.
Reformers targeted slumlords, prostitution, and juvenile delinquency.
State Leadership:
Robert La Follette (Wisconsin): Regulated railroads and utilities.
Hiram Johnson (California): Ended Southern Pacific Railroad's political dominance.
Charles Evans Hughes (New York): Investigated corruption in gas, insurance, and coal industries.
Oregon was slightly below the level of reform that California had.
Role of Women in Progressivism
Activism through:
Settlement Houses: Exposed women to urban poverty (e.g., Jane Addams, Lillian Wald).
Women’s Trade Union League and National Consumers League: Advocated for labor reforms.
Landmark Reforms:
Muller v. Oregon (1908): Upheld laws protecting women workers, though later seen as discriminatory. Louis D Brandeis persuaded the Supreme Court to accept the constitutionality of laws protecting women workers by using evidence of the effects of factories to women’s fragile bodies.
Creation of federal agencies:
Children’s Bureau (1912).
Women’s Bureau (1920).
Florence Kelley was Illinois’s first chief factory inspector and was one of the leading reformers of the factory.
Lochner v. New York refuted a 10 hour work day for bakers.
Legacy of Progressivism
Beliefs: Progressives aimed to reform capitalism, not replace it.
Methodology: Relied on publicity and public conscience rather than radical political changes.
Impact: Introduced foundational reforms in democracy, labor, and social welfare.
Factory Regulation and Labor Rights
Triangle Shirtwaist Fire (1911):
146 workers (mostly immigrant women) died due to locked doors and fire code violations.
Public outcry and strikes led New York to pass stronger sweatshop regulations.
By 1917, 30 states enacted workers’ compensation laws for industrial injuries.
Shift from unregulated free enterprise to recognizing employer responsibility to society.
The Temperance Movement
Alcohol was linked to:
Prostitution, corruption, voter manipulation, and political bosses.
By 1900, major cities had one saloon for every 200 people.
Key Organizations:
Woman’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU):
Led by Frances E. Willard, mobilized nearly 1 million women.
Anti-Saloon League: Well-organized and funded.
Legislative Changes:
Many states and counties enacted "dry" laws, banning alcohol.
By 1914, half the population lived in “dry” territories.
Culminated in the 18th Amendment (1919), temporarily prohibiting alcohol.
Theodore Roosevelt’s “Square Deal” for Labor and Corporations
Three Core Principles:
Control of corporations.
Consumer protection.
Conservation of natural resources.
Anthracite Coal Strike (1902):
Workers demanded higher pay and shorter hours; mine owners refused.
Roosevelt mediated, threatening federal control of mines.
Outcome: Workers gained a 10% pay increase and a 9-hour workday.
George F. Baer was the spokesperson for the mining company.
Creation of the Department of Commerce and Labor (1903):
Bureau of Corporations helped regulate monopolies and promote fair practices.
Railroad Regulation and Trust-Busting
Legislation:
Elkins Act (1903): Targeted rebate abuses with fines for violators.
Hepburn Act (1906): Empowered the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) to regulate rates and expanded its oversight to pipelines and other industries.
Trust-Busting:
Roosevelt distinguished between "good" and "bad" trusts.
Key case: Dissolution of Northern Securities Company (1904), targeting J.P. Morgan’s railroad monopoly and James J. Hill.
Initiated 40+ antitrust lawsuits but prioritized regulation over dismantling businesses.
Beef trusts were illegal in 1905 according to the Supreme Court.
What Roosevelt did was to prove that the government ruled the country and not big business.
William H. Taft busted more trusts than Roosevelt.
Consumer Protection
Meat Inspection Act (1906):
Mandated federal inspections for meat crossing state lines.
Prompted by Upton Sinclair’s novel The Jungle and its exposé of unsanitary conditions.
Pure Food and Drug Act (1906):
Prevented mislabeling and adulteration of foods and pharmaceuticals.
Conservation of Natural Resources
Early Conservation Laws:
Forest Reserve Act (1891): Enabled presidents to designate public forests as reserves.
Newlands Act (1902): Funded irrigation projects through land sales, leading to significant reclamation efforts like the Roosevelt Dam (1911), which was on Arizona’s salt river. Dozens of dams were thrown actress every western river in the following decades. `
Desert Land Act of 1887 - the federal government sold arid land cheaply on the condition that the purchaser irrigate the thirsty soil within three years.
Carey Act of 1894 - distributed federal land to the states on the condition that it will be irrigated and settled.
Roosevelt’s Leadership:
Protected 125 million acres of forests, coal deposits, and water resources.
Advocated for sustainable resource management.\
Banned Christmas trees from the White House in 1902, to showcase the point of protectring the trees.
Hetch Hetchy Controversy (1913):
Conflict between preservationists (John Muir/Sierra Club) and conservationists (Gifford Pinchot/Roosevelt).
Highlighted differing views on wilderness use: preservation vs. practical resource management.
First started over the debate of placing a dam over the Hetch Hetchy Valley in San Francisco.
Multiple-Use Resource Management:
Combined recreation, logging, watershed protection, and grazing under federal land policies
PANIC OF 1907:
It was caused by a failed attempt to corner the market on the stock of the United Copper Company, which led to a series of bank runs and a widespread loss of confidence in the banking system, particularly after the collapse of the Knickerbocker Trust Company in New York City
Everybody blamed Roosevelt for trying too hard to curb businesses.
Because of this, banks increased currency circulation and Congress passed the Aldrich-Vreeland Act in 1908, which authorized banks to issue emergency currency backed by various kinds of collateral, which later led to the Federal Reserve Act of 1913.
Election of 1908
Democratic Nominee: William Jennings Bryan (third nomination, twice defeated).
Republican Nominee: William Howard Taft (Roosevelt-endorsed).
Campaign:
Taft delivered routine speeches.
Taft was the Secretary of War before nomination.
Bryan criticized Roosevelt for adopting policies from Bryanite ideology.
Results:
Taft won with 321 electoral votes to Bryan's 162.
Popular vote: 7,675,320 (Taft) vs. 6,412,294 (Bryan).
Eugene V. Debs (Socialist Party): 420,793 votes, showcasing growing Socialist support.
Theodore Roosevelt Post-Presidency
Post-election: Embarked on a lion hunt in Africa.
Public Perception:
Adversaries branded him a “wild-eyed radical.”
Seen as a reformer who fought for controlled capitalism and opposed socialism.
His youthfulness “like an overgrown Boy Scout” appealed to all ages.
Legacy:
He enlarged presidential power and prestige, using publicity to his advantage.
Advanced progressive reforms (precursor to FDR's New Deal).
Pioneered conservation efforts, balancing preservation with resource management.
Highlighted America’s role as a global power.
William Howard Taft’s Presidency (1909–1913)
Personality and Leadership Style
Popular for his jovial demeanor, but lacked Roosevelt’s charisma and leadership dynamism.
Struggled with public opinion and often made controversial remarks (“foot-in-mouth disease”).
“Dollar Diplomacy”
Policy: Used American investments to boost U.S. political influence abroad.
Encouraged Wall Street to invest in strategic regions like the Far East and Caribbean.
Notable Efforts:
Proposed U.S. investment in Manchurian railroads, but faced rejection from Japan and Russia. This was done with the help of Philander C. KNow who was the secretary of state under Taft.
Intervened in the Caribbean (Cuba, Honduras, Haiti, Nicaragua) to protect U.S. investments and maintain Monroe Doctrine influence.
Trust-Busting
Filed 90 antitrust lawsuits in 4 years (more than Roosevelt’s 44 suits in 7½ years).
Key Cases:
1911: Dissolution of Standard Oil under the Sherman Antitrust Act.
1911: Lawsuit against U.S. Steel, angering Roosevelt, who had supported the merger in question.
Tariff Controversy
Signed the Payne-Aldrich Tariff Bill, which raised tariffs despite campaign promises to lower them.
Outrage from progressive Republicans, especially in the Midwest.
The Payne-Aldrich Tariff Bill also had hundreds of upward tariff revisions due to Senator Nelson. W. Aldrich.
Conservation Efforts
Established the Bureau of Mines and protected western coal lands.
Controversy: The Ballinger-Pinchot Affair (1910).
Gifford Pinchot criticized Richard Ballinger for opening public lands to corporate use.
Taft dismissed Pinchot, alienating Roosevelt supporters and conservationists.
Republican Party Split (1910–1912)
Midterm Elections of 1910: Democrats gained control of the House (228 seats to Republicans’ 161).
Socialist Victor L. Berger elected from Milwaukee.
Progressive Wing: Discontent grew under Taft’s leadership.
Formed the National Progressive Republican League (1911), led by Robert La Follette.
Roosevelt’s Return:
Reentered politics, opposing Taft’s policies and proclaiming his “New Nationalism” (advocated expanded federal power to address social/economic issues).
Declared candidacy for the Republican nomination in 1912.
Republican National Convention (1912)
Rooseveltites challenged 250 Taft delegates, alleging fraud, but Taft’s camp prevailed.
Taft secured the nomination.
Roosevelt, outraged, decided to run as a third-party candidate under the Progressive Party (Bull Moose Party) banner.
Alfred Thayer Mahan, in his influential book *The Influence of Sea Power upon History*, emphasized the importance of naval power for national greatness and prosperity. He argued that to compete effectively on a global stage, the United States needed a powerful navy to protect its shipping routes and secure overseas markets. His theories helped inspire a naval arms race and increased American interest in building a canal, which reflected the broader drive for overseas expansion.
One reason AS e. The intervention of the German Kaiser in Latin America
Grover Cleveland refused to annex Hawaii primarily due to his opposition to the overthrow of Queen Liliuokalani in 1893. He believed that the annexation was wrong because it was accomplished through the actions of a minority of Hawaiian settlers and businessmen rather than through the consent of the native population. Cleveland sought to restore the Queen to her throne and expressed his disapproval of imperialism, leading to the delay of the annexation until 1898.