A process of cultural change designed to make all citizens of the Ottoman Empire feel a part of a common Turkish heritage and society.
Bolshevik
A group of revolutionary Russian Marxists who took control of Russia's government in November 1917.
Communists
Individuals who favor the equal distribution of wealth and the end of all forms of private property.
Young Turks
A coalition starting in the late 1870s comprised of various groups favoring modernist liberal reform of the Ottoman Empire.
Opposed the monarchy of the Ottoman Sultan and advocated for a constitutional government.
Successfully established a new constitutional era in 1908.
Mexican Revolution (1910-1920 CE)
A revolution fought over almost ten years from 1910, resulting in the ousting of Porfirio Diaz from power.
Led by opposition forces, including notable leaders Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata.
Sun Yat-Sen
Chinese nationalist revolutionary, founder and leader of the Guomindang until his death.
Attempted to create a liberal democratic political movement in China but faced opposition from military leaders.
Porfirio Diaz
Dictator in Mexico from 1876 to 1911, overthrown during the Mexican Revolution of 1910.
Francisco Madero
An early leader in the Mexican Revolution; became president of Mexico in 1911.
Advocated for land ownership and free, honest elections.
Assassinated two years later, leading to power struggles.
Pancho Villa
A popular leader during the Mexican Revolution.
An outlaw in youth, formed a cavalry army in northern Mexico to fight for the rights of the landless, collaborating with Emiliano Zapata.
Emiliano Zapata
A revolutionary leader of peasants in the Mexican Revolution.
Mobilized landless peasants in south-central Mexico to seize and divide the lands from wealthy landowners.
Achieved some successes but was ultimately defeated and assassinated.
The Great War
The name originally given to the First World War, which lasted from 1914 to 1918.
Archduke Franz Ferdinand
Heir to the Austria-Hungarian throne, assassinated in Sarajevo; his assassination triggered the start of World War I.
Triple Entente
A military alliance between Great Britain, France, and Russia in the years leading up to World War I.
Triple Alliance
An alliance formed between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy in the years preceding World War I.
Black Hand
Serbian nationalist/terrorist group responsible for the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand.
Militarism
A policy that glorifies military power, advocating for a standing army that is always prepared for war.
Self-determination
The concept that ethnic groups have the right to govern themselves.
Stalemate
A situation in which no progress can be made or advancement is possible.
Propaganda
The ideas spread to influence public opinion for or against a particular cause.
Reparations
Payments made for war damages.
Lusitania
A British passenger ship that was sunk by a German U-Boat on May 7, 1915.
Resulted in the deaths of 128 Americans, significantly swaying American public opinion against Germany and facilitating the U.S. entry into the war.
Zimmerman Note
A secret message from Germany to Mexico proposing a military alliance against the United States, helping to lead the U.S. toward war with Germany.
Total War
A conflict in which participating countries devote all their resources to the war effort.
ANZAC
Acronym for the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps.
Paris Peace Conference
A major gathering of world leaders excluding Germany and Russia, held in Versailles to negotiate post-war repercussions.
Notable leaders included Lloyd George (Britain), Woodrow Wilson (America), Clemenceau (France), and Italy.
The Treaty of Versailles was proposed but lacked agreement for signing, resulting in an unsuccessful conference.
Big Four
The most influential leaders at the Paris Peace Conference, consisting of Woodrow Wilson (USA), David Lloyd George (UK), George Clemenceau (France), and Vittorio Orlando (Italy).
Fourteen Points
A series of proposals put forth by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson outlining a plan for achieving lasting peace following World War I.
League of Nations
An international organization established in 1920 aimed at promoting cooperation and peace among nations.
Treaty of Versailles
The treaty that ended World War I.
It notably placed the blame for the war on Germany and its allies.
Weimar Republic
The German republic founded after World War I and the downfall of the German Empire's monarchy.
Trench Warfare
A form of warfare characterized by opposing armies fighting each other from trenches dug into the battlefield.
U-Boat (Submarines)
German military submarines that attacked British ships, notably sinking the Lusitania.
Inflation
A general and progressive increase in prices.
Collectivize
The process of bringing sectors under central government control.
Great Depression
An economic crisis that began with the stock market crash in 1929 and persisted throughout the 1930s.
New Deal
A series of reforms enacted by President Franklin Roosevelt from 1933 to 1942 aimed at ending the Great Depression.
Five-Year Plan
Stalin's economic policy to rebuild the Soviet economy post-World War I.
It focused on improving heavy industry and increasing agricultural output but ultimately led to famine.
Russian Civil War (1918-1920)
A conflict where the Red Army successfully defended the newly formed Bolshevik government against various Russian and interventionist anti-Bolshevik armies (including the Red vs. White Army).
Spanish Civil War
A rebellion that erupted in Spain in 1936 after a coalition of Republicans, Socialists, and Communists was elected.
General Francisco Franco led the rebellion, which devolved into a civil war.
The Soviet Union provided support to government forces, while Germany and Italy aided Franco.
Fascism
A political system led by a dictator characterized by extreme nationalism, racism, and intolerance of opposition.
Totalitarian State
A country where a single party controls the government and every aspect of citizens' lives.
Luftwaffe
The German Air Force.
USSR
The Russian federal system controlled by the Communist Party, established in 1923.
Soviet Union
A Communist nation that consisted of Russia and 14 other states, existing from 1922 to 1991.
Francisco Franco
Fascist leader of the Spanish revolution, aided by Hitler and Mussolini.
Gulag
A Russian prison camp intended for political prisoners.
Decolonization
The process leading to the collapse of colonial empires; between 1947 and 1962, nearly all former colonies in Asia and Africa gained independence.
Mandate System
Allocation of former German colonies and Ottoman possessions to victorious powers post-World War I, to be administered under League of Nations supervision.
Balfour Declaration
A British document promising land in Palestine as a homeland for Jews in exchange for their assistance during World War I.
Civil Disobedience
A form of political participation characterized by a conscious decision to break laws believed to be immoral and to accept the consequences.
Mohandas Gandhi
An Indian philosopher and spiritual leader who advocated for India's independence from British rule through passive resistance, civil disobedience, and boycotts.
Jawaharlal Nehru
Indian statesman and successor to Mohandas K. Gandhi as leader of the Indian National Congress.
Key figure in negotiating the end of British colonial rule in India and served as the first Prime Minister from 1947 to 1964.
Mao Zedong (1893-1976)
Leader of the Communist Party in China who overthrew Jiang Jieshi and the Nationalists, establishing the People's Republic of China, ruling from 1949 until his death in 1976.
Chiang Kai-Shek
General and leader of Nationalist China post-1925, who succeeded Sun Yat-sen as head of the Guomindang and aimed to eliminate the Communist movement led by Mao Zedong.
Pan-Arabism
A movement that sought to unite all Arab peoples into one nation-state.
Indian National Congress
The major political party in India that emerged as a leading organization during the independence movement.
Satyagraha Movement
This concept refers to Gandhi's philosophy of nonviolent resistance.
Salt March
A passive resistance campaign led by Mohandas Gandhi where Indians protested against the British tax on salt by marching to the sea to produce their own salt.
Chinese Communist Party
An authoritarian party that has governed China since 1949.
Long March
The 6,000-mile (9,600-kilometer) strategic retreat of Chinese Communists from southeastern to northwestern China, led by Mao Zedong while being pursued by the Chinese Army under Chiang Kai-shek's orders.
Palestine
A territory located in the Middle East along the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea; disputed with Israel.
Pakistan
A Muslim republic located in the heart of ancient South Asian civilization in the Indus River valley.
Neville Chamberlain
British Prime Minister known for advocating peace and a policy of appeasement prior to World War II.
Kristallnacht
Known as the Night of Broken Glass, on November 9, 1938, mobs destroyed Jewish properties and terrorized Jewish people throughout Germany.