Diversity and Social Justice Revision Slides

The Equality Act 2010

Introducing Protected Characteristics

  • The Equality Act 2010 prohibits discrimination against individuals based on protected characteristics in the provision of services, education, or employment relations.

  • Discrimination is categorized into direct and indirect.

  • Some indirect discrimination, as well as direct age discrimination, may be legally justified if it is a proportionate means to achieve a legitimate aim.

Protected Characteristics (Section 4 of the Equality Act 2010)

  1. Age

  2. Disability

  3. Race, including colour, nationality, ethnic and national origin

  4. Sex (including equal pay)

  5. Pregnancy and maternity

  6. Gender reassignment

  7. Marriage and civil partnership

  8. Sexual orientation

  9. Religion or belief

Direct Discrimination

Definition

  • According to Section 13 of the Equality Act 2010:

    • “A person (A) discriminates against another (B) if, because of a protected characteristic, A treats B less favourably than A treats or would treat others.”

Justification

  • No justification permissible for direct discrimination, except for direct age discrimination, which may be justified if it is a ‘proportionate means of achieving a legitimate aim’ (Section 13, Subsection 2).

  • Example: A partner in a law firm required to retire at age 65 is an illustration of direct age discrimination that may be justified.

Indirect Discrimination

Definition

  • Defined in Section 19 of the Equality Act: Indirect discrimination occurs when a seemingly neutral rule or practice places an employee at a disadvantage because of a protected characteristic.

Legal Justification

  • Indirect discrimination can be lawful if it is proven to be a proportionate means of achieving a legitimate aim.

    • Example: A neurosurgeon may be barred from surgery due to deteriorating eyesight, which can be justified despite it appearing discriminatory against individuals with disabilities.

UK Court Judgments on Discrimination

  • Lawful examples:

    • A baker refusing to ice a cake with the message "Support Gay Marriage."

    • A law firm mandating retirement of a partner at age 65.

  • Unlawful examples:

    • An airline prohibiting a crew member from wearing a crucifix while on duty.

    • Insurance companies charging higher premiums for male drivers than for female drivers.

Key Concepts Presented by Chris Aiken

Culture and Social Identities

  • Major aspect of social identity includes:

    1. Race (most significant social identity in US society)

    2. Power (neutral concept that can be used positively or negatively)

    3. Privilege (involves societal advantages and requires significant effort to renounce)

    4. Oppression (manifests through microaggressions, bias, prejudice, racism, sexism, etc.)

    5. Culture (pervasive norms and beliefs that guide societal behavior)

Key Terms and Concepts

Assimilation, Adaptation, and Liberation

  1. Assimilation:

    • A survival skill where an individual modifies themselves to fit within cultural norms rather than opposing them.

  2. Adaptation:

    • A strategy that balances personal choices with cultural fitting, exemplified by selecting stylish attire while adhering to certain professional standards.

  3. Liberation:

    • Involves dismantling oppressive systems to achieve social justice.

System Measurements of Change

Key Definitions

  1. Diversity:

    • The recognition of human differences that shape interactions in communities and institutions.

    • Numerical representation of various groups within society.

  2. Equity:

    • Focused on addressing resource disparities and ensuring opportunities for marginalized groups.

  3. Inclusion:

    • Creation of environments where differences contribute to group success, emphasizing the importance of diverse voices in decision-making.

  4. Belonging:

    • Ensuring all members feel valued, responsible, and integral to community culture, promoting individual growth and community success.

Measuring Change in Diversity and Equity

  • Diversity: Mere counting of characteristics present in a population.

  • Inclusion: Ensures that individual viewpoints are actively considered in decision-making processes to meet their specific needs.

  • Equity: Essential actions needed to achieve equitable conditions supporting the growth of all members.

  • Belonging: Focuses on individual experience—how members feel welcomed and valued within the community.

Philosophical Approaches to Ethics

Consequentialism

  • Definition: The moral decision-making framework that determines the rightness of actions based on the outcomes produced. The aim is to maximize the net 'good' effect.

  • Associated Figures: Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill (utilitarianism).

Deontology

  • Definition: Ethical framework emphasizing duties, rights, and moral rules that should guide behavior, treating people as ends rather than means.

  • Associated Figure: Immanuel Kant.

Examples in Ethical Discussion

Utilitarianism vs. Rule Following

  • Case Study: P&O made 800 staff redundant in 2022 without proper consultation, justifying actions to ensure business viability, showcasing ethical conflict between consequences and legal duties.

Components of Social Justice

  • Illustrative Example: Children working as window-cleaners (David Miller, 1976) discussing principles of:

    • Desert: Rewarding hard work.

    • Need: Addressing underserved children.

    • Rights: Respecting agreements even amongst less active individuals.

Economic Models

Types of Economic Models

  1. Capitalism: Market economy characterized by minimal state intervention (Nozick).

  2. Socialism: Focus on eradicating exploitative economic practices, with Karl Marx’s advocacy for distributive justice.

  3. Liberal Egalitarianism: Aiming for balanced equality and freedom (John Rawls).

State Roles in Economics

  1. Libertarianism: Limited government intervention, treating taxation akin to forced labor (Nozick, Hayek).

  2. Socialism: Robust state control over production means.

  3. Liberal Equality: Government’s role in resource redistribution and market regulation ensuring equity.

Political Philosophies in the US Government

  • Unique combination of libertarianism with skepticism of large government vs.
    liberalism emphasizing government’s role in social welfare.

  • Socialism often viewed negatively, particularly in the context of healthcare debates.

US Political Conservatism

  • Core Values:

    • Personal liberty, with social conservatives endorsing regulation in family matters and fiscal conservatives promoting limited governmental spending

    • Example: Trump self-identified as socially conservative yet fiscally liberal.

US Political Liberalism

  • Goals: Advocate for minority rights and positive freedom (Berlin), alongside proactive governmental intervention to tackle pressing issues like climate change and healthcare.

Economic Challenges

  • The US federal deficit in 2022: $1.4 trillion, equaling 5.5% of GDP—reflects the gap in federal revenue vs. expenditures.

UK Political System

  • Key Feature: Lacks a single constitutional document; governed by the principle of parliamentary sovereignty—parliament’s capacity to create or repeal laws without judicial override.

The Veil of Ignorance

  • Concept by John Rawls suggesting that principles of justice should be established without bias-driven factors—not knowing age, gender, ethnicity, etc., leading to fair agreements.

Two Principles of Justice

  1. Equal Basic Liberties: Everyone should have the same basic freedoms without discrimination.

  2. Difference Principle: Inequalities permissible only if they benefit the least advantaged individuals in society.

Current UK Social Justice Challenges

  • Notable issues affecting social justice include:

    • Cost of Living Crisis

    • Environmental Concerns

    • Health and Social Care Funding

    • Regional Inequality

    • Child Poverty

    • Housing Market Issues

    • Racism

    • Immigration Challenges

    • Justice and Prison System Concerns

    • Violent Crimes and Domestic Abuse.

Funding Programmes in US Health Care

Medicaid

  • Coverage in 2025: 71 million Americans; accounts for 18% of all US health spending.

  • Projected expenditure in 2023: approximately $900 billion, split 70% federal and 30% state.

  • Eligibility determination based on Modified Adjusted Gross Income (MAGI).

Medicare

  • Eligibility: Individuals over 65, those with disabilities, and persons with end-stage renal disease.

  • Services covered: Hospital care, medical coverage, drug costs; premiums contingent on individual circumstances.

  • Total enrollment in 2024: 67 million, costing the federal government $848 billion in 2023.

Other Public Health Programmes

  • Children’s Health Insurance Programme (CHIP): State-provided, largely free with some co-payments.

  • Veterans (VA) Health Care: Includes support options for family members.

Affordable Care Act of 2010

  • Purpose: Enhance access to high-quality health coverage.

  • Provisions:

    • Eligibility to remain on parent’s plan until age 26.

    • Coverage for pre-existing conditions.

    • Mandatory preventive measures covered in plans,

    • No gender-based premium discrimination; expanded Medicaid subject to state collaboration for improved efficiency.

Creation of the NHS

  • Originated from the Beveridge Report, established in 1948.

  • Provided universal health care, free at the point of need, overseen by Labour government post-1945 election.

Life Expectancy Trends

  • Historical life expectancy data by census year.

    • Male and female life expectancy trends between 1860 and 2020.

Health Care Costs

  • Cost variation in health care related to age: 8 times more expensive to treat a 90-year-old compared to a 30-year-old in the UK.

Trends in Health Spending

  • Average annual increases:

    • Various governance parties show an average increase from 6% (Conservative), 4% (Labour), down to 2% (2018-2023 proposed increase).

Causes of Ill Health and Mortality

  • Rise of noncommunicable diseases due to lifestyle choices (poor diet, tobacco, sedentary behavior).

  • Global trends indicate significant increases in obesity (tripling since 1975).

  • Statistics on infant and maternal mortality rates show stark contrasts between developed and low-income nations.

Health Inequality

  • Quote: "Social inequality results in literal sickness." - Patricia Homan (2019).

Gender Disparities in Health

  • Life expectancy in the US: Females (79 years) vs. Males (73 years) attributed to environmental and behavioral factors.

The Hispanic Paradox

  • Observations: Despite living conditions, Hispanics in the US exhibit a longer life expectancy compared to whites and blacks due to cultural factors.

Overview of US Health Care System

  • Unique attributes: Only developed nation without universal health coverage and high co-payments.

  • Statistics indicate significant coverage gaps, with approximately 8.4% of Americans uninsured as of 2022.

Health Care Costs in the US

  • US health care expenditure approximates 18% of GDP as of 2021, yet outcomes such as life expectancy are lower than peers with similar spending due to inefficiencies and other systemic issues.

Health Care Rationing

Modes of Rationing:

  1. Delay

  2. Denial

  3. Dilution

  4. Deflection

  5. Deterrence

NHS Prioritization

  • Established by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence in 1999 to provide guidance on priorities and improve care quality, with emphasis on maximizing QALYs (Quality Adjusted Life Years).

The Spirit Level (2009)

  • Authors: Wilkinson and Pickett focused on developed economies.

  • Thesis Claim: Greater inequality correlates with worsening social problems, evaluated using the ratio of the richest to the poorest.

Measures of Health and Social Problems Index

  • Key indicators: Life expectancy, literacy rates, infant mortality, homicide rates, trust levels, and more.

Health and Social Problems by Inequality

  • Higher levels of inequality lead to exacerbated health and social issues.

  • Conclusively shown through comparative studies among various countries.

Counter Arguments to The Spirit Level

  • Christopher Snowdon critiques:

    • Allegations of selective data usage.

    • Reproducibility issues in research results.

    • Counter-examples to correlations asserted in the original study.

Demographic Changes in the US

  • Predictions suggest the US will become the most racially diverse country by 2042, with people of color forming the majority.

Household Income Statistics (US and UK)

US 2021 Household Income Distribution

  • Median household income varies substantially by race and ethnicity:

    • Asian: $101,418

    • White (not Hispanic): $99,622

    • Hispanic: $58,015

    • Black: $48,175.

UK Household Income by Ethnic Group

  • Median weekly income (2019-20 averages) highlights disparities:

    • Indian: £558

    • Chinese: £552

    • White: £547

  • Further breakdown of other ethnic groups includes Black, Pakistani, Bangladeshi and others with compound differences.