Comprehensive Study Notes on the Iberian Kingdoms, the Inquisition, and the Magellan-Elcano Expedition

The Geopolitical Landscape of the Iberian Peninsula (c. 1270)

• Kingdoms Post-13th Century: By the mid-$13^{th}$ century, the Iberian Peninsula was divided into several primary kingdoms: Castile-León, Aragon-Catalonia, Navarre, and Portugal. These borders remained largely unchanged until the conclusion of the Middle Ages.

• The Crown of Aragon: Described as a confederation of the kingdoms of Aragon, Valencia, Majorca, and the principality of Catalonia. It possessed a distinctive character among Christian states due to its unique institutional structure.

• Geographic Centers and Strongholds (c. 1270):

  • Galicia Region: Lugo, Orense, A Coruña.

  • Kingdom of Portugal: Braga, Oporto, Coimbra, Batalha, Santarem, Lisbon, Beja, Mertola, Algarve, Faro, Lagos.

  • Crown of Castile: Oviedo, Santander, Bilbao, Vitoria, Burgos, Palencia, Valladolid, Zamora, Salamanca, Avila, Madrid, Toledo, Ocaña, Trujillo, Mérida, Badajoz, Seville, Cadiz.

  • Crown of Aragon: Perpignan, Huesca, Zaragoza, Lleida, Barcelona, Tarragona, Valencia, Alicante, Palma, Iviza, Mahon (Minorca).

  • Kingdom of Navarre: Pamplona, Olite.

  • Emirate of Granada: Granada, Málaga, Baza, Almería.

The Union of Aragon and Castile

• The Catholic Monarchs (Reyes Católicos): Ferdinand and Isabella ruled jointly in both kingdoms. However, this was strictly a union of crowns rather than a union of kingdoms.

• Differing Entities: The two kingdoms were vastly different in terms of size, institutions, traditions, and even partially in language.

• Strategic Alliance (1469): The marriage of Ferdinand (heir of Aragon) and Isabella (Castile) was arranged by John II of Aragon for tactical reasons. He required the support of Castile to counter French aggression in the Pyrenees (the mountain range separating France and Spain).

• Succession and Power (1479-1516): When Ferdinand II (also known as Ferdinand V of Castile from $1474$) succeeded to the Crown of Aragon in $1479$, the union was finalized. The House of Trastámara became the second most powerful monarchy in Europe, trailing only the Valois of France.

• The Portugal Alternative: A union between Castile and Portugal was equally feasible at the time. Proponents argue it might have been more logical as it would have allowed both western Hispanic kingdoms to focus on overseas expansion without involving Castile in Aragon’s disputes with France.

The Treaty of Tordesillas and the Iberian Union

• Treaty Date: June $7$, $1494$.

• Definition of the Line: The treaty divided the world along a line running from pole to pole, located $370$ leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands.

• Global Impacts: This division allowed Portugal to claim Brazil. However, westward exploration movements eventually ignored the line, leading to conflict between Portuguese, Spanish, Indigenous, and African peoples.

• The Iberian Union (1580–1640): For $60$ years, Portugal was united with the Spanish Empire under single political control. This period saw a rapprochement between the two entities while the national identities of "Portuguese" and "Spanish" were being refined.

The Inquisition: Judicial Procedure and Institution

• Definition: The Inquisition was a judicial procedure and later an institution established by the papacy and secular governments to combat heresy.

• Nature of the Office: It was a powerful office within the Catholic Church designed to root out and punish heresy. It is infamous for its use of severe torture and the persecution of Jews and Muslims.

• The Spanish Inquisition: This was the most severe manifestation, functioning as a dominant force for over $200$ years. It resulted in approximately $32,000$ executions.

• Context and Persecution:

  • In Castile and Leon (1390–1406): Under Henry III, anti-Semitism surged. The pogroms of $1391$ were particularly brutal.

  • Nominal Converts (Conversos): Many Jews converted to Christianity when faced with death or baptism.

  • Secret Practitioners (Marranos): Converts who secretly continued to practice Judaism were viewed as a significant threat to social order.

• Categorization of Heretics: Heretics were defined as baptized members of the Church who held beliefs contrary to Church doctrine, or those who converted for safety without genuine belief.

• Targets of the Spanish Inquisition:

  • Principally Jewish and Muslim people suspected of reverting to their original faiths.

  • Protestants: All sects, specifically in the Spanish Netherlands.

  • Greek Orthodox Christians: Targeted in Spanish possessions in the Kingdom of Sicily and the Kingdom of Naples.

• Administrative Seats in the Americas:

  • Mexico: Administered the Audiencias of Guatemala (Guatemala, Chiapas, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica), Nueva Galicia, Mexico central/southeast, and the Philippines.

  • Peru (Lima): Administered all Spanish territories in South America and Panama.

  • Cartagena (established 1610): Administered the Spanish Caribbean, Panama, and northern South America.

William Tyndale: Scholar, Priest, and Martyr

• Biographical Data: Born c. $1494$ (or $1495$) at Slymbridge; executed October $6$, $1536$.

• Education: Degrees from Magdalen College, Oxford; also studied at Cambridge.

• Mission: Tyndale was obsessed with translating the Bible into English so that even a "boy that driveth the plow" would know more scripture than the clergy.

• Exile: Harassed by King Henry VIII, he fled to Germany in $1525$ and met Martin Luther. He lived in poverty, persecution, and constant danger while translating.

• Contributions:

  • Completed the New Testament translation in $1525$ (printed at Worms).

  • Smuggled $18,000$ copies into England; only $2$ survive today.

  • Published the Pentateuch and Jonah and partially translated Joshua through Second Chronicles.

  • His work forms the basis for all modern English translations, including the King James Version.

• Betrayal and Death: He was betrayed by Henry Phillips in Antwerp and arrested. He was imprisoned for $16$ months in the castle of Vilvoorde near Brussels. Before his execution, he wrote a letter pleading for "winter comforts" like a warm cap and coat.

• Execution Method: He was strangled and then burned at the stake; his last words were: "Lord, open the King of England's eyes."

Ferdinand Magellan and the Genesis of the Spanish Expedition

• Ferdinand Magellan (Magallanes): A Portuguese navigator who eventually served the Crown of Castile.

• Reasons for Abandoning Portugal:

  • The refusal of promotion in palace rank.

  • King Manuel's decision to condemn Magellan to inaction and "uselessness."

  • The refusal of a petition to increase his salary by half a ducat a month.

  • King Manuel's refusal to employ him at sea for projects of discovery that offered no immediate profit.

• Shift to Spain: Magellan turned to Spain in $1517$. He argued the western passage could only be sought under Spanish auspices due to the Treaty of Tordesillas.

• The Expedition's Purpose: To reach the Spice Islands (Moluccas) by sailing westward.

Key Figures and Narrative Sources of the Expedition

• Antonio Pigafetta: A diplomat who kept a detailed diary of the voyage, published as Magellan's Voyage Around the World. He noted the deep hatred Spanish captains felt for Magellan, likely due to his Portuguese origin.

• Enrique of Malacca:

  • Magellan’s enslaved interpreter, captured during the Portuguese invasion of Malacca in $1511$.

  • In Magellan’s will (written $1519$ in Seville), he freed Enrique upon his death.

  • The Linguistic Circumnavigation: On March $28$, $1521$, Enrique reached a point where his native language was spoken (Cebu), potentially making him the first person to linguistically circumnavigate the globe.

  • Fate: Survived the Battle of Mactan; felt betrayed when Spanish captains refused to honor Magellan’s will to free him; believed to have escaped during the massacre in Cebu.

The Fleet: The Fate of the Five Ships

1. Trinidad: Magellan’s flagship. It attempted to return via the Pacific but was battered by headwinds. Captured by the Portuguese (Antonio de Brito) in Tidore (Moluccas) and ultimately wrecked.

2. Victoria: Commanded by Luis de Mendoza; eventually completed the circumnavigation under Juan Sebasti!n Elcano, arriving in Spain in September $1522$.

3. Concepci!n: Commanded by Gaspar de Quesada. Burned at the southwest point of Bohol after Magellan’s death due to a lack of men to man the vessel.

4. San Antonio: The largest ship, commanded by Juan de Cartagena. It deserted in the Strait of Magellan in late $1520$, returned to Spain, and arrived in May $1521$.

5. Santiago: The smallest ship, used for scouting. Destroyed in a storm in $1520$.

Chronology of the First Voyage Around the World

• October 20, 1518: Magellan arrives in Seville.

• August 10, 1519: Sails from Seville (Monday).

• September 20, 1519: Sails from San Lucar de Barrameda.

• December 13, 1519: Arrives at Rio de Janeiro.

• December 1519: Antonio Salam!n (officer on Victoria) executed for sexual assault.

• April 1520: Mutiny attempt by Juan de Cartagena and Luis de Mendoza at Puerto San Juli!n. Mendoza is killed; one captain is quartered; Cartagena is marooned.

• October 21, 1520: Reach the entrance of the Straits (Cape of the Virgins).

• November 28, 1520: Issue from the Straits into the Pacific.

• March 6, 1521: Reach the Ladrone Islands (Guam).

• March 16, 1521: Arrival in the Philippines (Samar/Homonhon).

• March 28, 1521: Arrival at Mazzava (Limasawa).

• April 7, 1521: Arrival at Zubu (Cebu).

• April 27, 1521: Death of Magellan at Matan (Mactan).

• September 8, 1522: Victoria casts anchor at Seville.

The Arrival in the Philippines and the Site of the First Mass

• Names Given: Magellan named the islands Islas de San L!zaro in $1521$.

• Route in the Philippines:

  • Homonhon (March 16): First landing; meeting with friendly natives.

  • Suluan (March 18): First recorded contact with Filipinos.

  • Mazaua/Limasawa (March 28-31): Blood compact with Rajah Kolambu of Limasawa and his brother Rajah Siagu of Butuan.

• Site of the First Mass (March 31, 1521):

  • The Controversy: Traditionally debated between Limasawa (Southern Leyte) and Masao (Butuan).

  • Limasawa Evidence: Supported by the primary accounts of Antonio Pigafetta and the logbook of Francisco Albo (Pilot of the Victoria). Legazpi’s subsequent expedition also followed this route.

  • Butuan Claim: Supported by secondhand accounts from Fr. Francisco Colin and Fr. Combes in the $17^{th}$ century, who suggested Magellan visited both locations.

  • NHCP Verdict: In $2020$, the National Historical Commission of the Philippines officially declared Limasawa as the site.

• Cebu (April 7, 1521): Rajah Humabon (Carlos) and his wife Harah Humamay (Juana) were baptized.

Subsequent Spanish Expeditions

• 1525 - Loa!sa Expedition: Led by García Jofre de Loa!sa. Failed due to storms and deaths of leaders.

• 1526 - Cabot Expedition: Sebastián Cabot diverted the mission to the Río de la Plata region and was later prosecuted for failure.

• 1527 - Saavedra Expedition: Led by !lvaro de Saavedra Cer!n; he died at sea shortly after reaching Mindanao.

• 1542 - Villalobos Expedition: Ruy L!pez de Villalobos reached Leyte and Samar. He named the islands Las Islas Felipinas in honor of Prince Philip. The expedition failed due to starvation (eating grubs/poisonous lizards) and Portuguese imprisonment. Villalobos died of a "broken heart."

• 1565 - Legazpi Expedition: Miguel L!pez de Legazpi successfully established the first permanent settlement in Cebu and founded Intramuros, Manila, in $1571$.

A long time ago, in a place called the Iberian Peninsula, there were many different kingdoms, just like different teams playing a game. The main teams were Castile-León, Aragon-Catalonia, Navarre, and Portugal. These teams had their own special rules and lands, and they didn’t change much for a very long time.

One special team was Aragon, made up of parts called Aragon, Valencia, Majorca, and Catalonia. They worked together but were different from the other teams!

In this place, there were many towns people lived in. For example, in Portugal, there were cities like Lisbon and Porto. Other teams had their own cities too, like Madrid and Granada.

Many years later, two important kings and queens from Spain, Ferdinand and Isabella, joined their teams through marriage but didn't blend them together. They had different players and rules! This union helped them work better as one big team!

They made a special agreement called the Treaty of Tordesillas to divide the world. It was like when you share your toys with your friends! But this sharing caused some trouble later when they didn't stick to their agreement.

There was also something called the Inquisition, which was like a game where players checked to see if everyone was following the rules. They were very strict about it, and it led to lots of sad stories because some people were punished for not following the rules.

Lastly, there was a cool explorer named Ferdinand Magellan who tried to find a way to a special place called the Spice Islands by sailing west across the ocean. He and his crew went on a big journey on five ships, but not all the ships made it back home safely.

So, the Iberian Peninsula was a place with many kingdoms, adventures, rules, and some tough times, just like in a big storybook!