The first significant battle between US and NV (North Vietnamese) forces took place in Ia Drang Valley in November 1965. It was a conventional battle and both sides saw it as a victory. The US lost only 300 soldiers, compared to between 2,000 and 3,000 NV casualties. However, NV forces held their position. General Vo Nguyen Giap realised that he needed an alternative strategy to beat the larger US forces, especially due to the difference between their equipment.

US Strengths

• The US forces had the economic might of a superpower behind them.

• The US forces had the most modern equipment in plentiful supply. By 1967 1 million tonnes of supplies were entering South Vietnam every month.

• Helicopter landing pads and airfields had been built across the country. The helicopter was vital to the delivery of troops, the speed of operations, recovering troops (particularly injured ones), and as an attack weapon.

Bombing

The escalation of the situation in Vietnam had begun with Operation Rolling Thunder. The B-52 bomber was America’s key bombing tool. The aim was to destroy North Vietnam’s economy and undermine Vietcong and NV forces in the south. North Vietnam was an agrarian country, and had few, well-disguised military targets, with relatively few industrial centres. More bombs fell on Vietnam than were used during the entirety of WWII. The US 7th Fleet controlled the seas around Vietnam and served as bases for air attacks. This effort was undermined by China and the USSR’s replacement of resources that were lost.

In early 1962, Kennedy had approved Operation Ranch Hand. Agent Orange and Agent Blue were used to destroy the forests that Vietcong forces relied on, and to destroy crops and deprive enemy forces of food. This only served to alienate regular Vietnamese peasants.

Anti-personnel bombs, also known as ‘pineapple bombs’, caused thousands of pellets to be freed in the explosion. They were indiscriminate, and led to the deaths of many civilians. Napalm was also used indiscriminately, and many civilians were victims of it.

Search and Destroy

Aimed to find and destroy the enemy in the jungle and rural villages. US forces would arrive via helicopter and raid a village suspected of harbouring Vietcong. It was impossible to identify them, and many innocent civilians were killed. Livestock and food sources were destroyed along with homes. It prevented the US from creating allies with the general population, and bolstered support for the Vietcong. This was the primary strategy from 1965 to 1968. Success was not measured in terms of territory but rather in 'the ‘body count’.

US Weaknesses

By 1968 the US’s strengths were far outweighed by the weaknesses. The South Vietnamese forces were not committed to the struggle, it avoided action and its troops were not well trained. The US forces were weakened by the widespread TV and press coverage of the conflict. Anti-war sentiment grew as the brutality of the US forces came to light. Civil rights campaigners solidified this view in the public consciousness. In April 1967, Martin Luther King gave a speech reinforcing his reasons for supporting the anti-war movement. The war undermined the social reform Johnson was committed to. Black Americans were the victims of the US’s failure to reform, as so many young Black Americans were drafted into the military. Domestic opponents were of many opinions: pacifists, isolationists, and those who challenged the idea of American imperialism. This divided US society and damaged Johnson’s war effort.

North Vietnamese Strengths

NV forces were determined and had ingenuity in battle. They knew the country and its people. They had logistical support from China and the USSR.

Peasant Support

The Vietcong was strengthened by the disillusioned peasantry, who had been victimised by the US forces. The principles of NLF guerrilla forces were modelled on those laid down by Mao Zedong in China:

• do not destroy land or crops

• always keep your word

• always show the peasants respect

• always support the peasants

They were, however, willing to use violence against any peasants who challenged them. There was an element of cooperation through terror.

Guerrilla Tactics

NV forces could not engage in conventional warfare, and adopted sophisticated guerrilla tactics to undermine the resolve and morale of the US forces:

• complex tunnel systems that the Vietcong used to hide

• booby traps were deployed in dense forests - trip wires that set off grenades and mines, and ambush groups.

The Ho Chi Minh Trail

This was the primary supply route for the Vietcong from the North. It passed through Laos and Cambodia before reaching South Vietnam. It was a regular target of US attacks but never fully disabled.

The Vietcong and NV forces had a commitment to nationalism and ideology. They were supported by China and the USSR. China gave their official support in December 1964 and only increased from 1964 to 1969. In 1964 alone China supplied 80,000 guns, which increased to 140,000 by 1989. The USSR provided surface-to-air missiles, MiG-21 jets and artillery systems.

North Vietnamese Weaknesses

Dependency on the USSR and China had developed. The North’s economy could not sustain a war. No guaranteed support for Southern Vietnamese peasants. Planned uprisings to the Tet Offensive never materialised.