The Late Middle Ages: Crisis and Transition

Medieval Europe is often portrayed negatively, but this is an oversimplification.
- Disease and famine were present.
- Child marriages were not common.
- Knights and chivalry existed but were in decline.
- The idea that people only drank beer is false; water was also consumed.

The 14th and 15th centuries saw significant challenges:
- The Black Death.
- The Great Schism in the Catholic Church.
- The Hundred Years' War.
- The Little Ice Age.

A devastating pandemic, the Bubonic Plague, spread from Asia to Europe.
Origin:
- Believed to have originated in Tibet.
- Spread by rats, mice, and fleas on human transportation.
Symptoms:
- Caused lymph node swelling and bursting.
- High fevers and vomiting of blood.
- Gangrene, leading to blackening of extremities (necrosis), hence "Black Death".
Mortality Rate:
- 50-60% mortality rate among those infected, depending on the strain.
Historical Context:
- Treatable today with antibiotics, but these treatments are relatively new.
- 20th-century outbreaks in India and China killed over 12 million.
Impact on Europe:
- Reached Constantinople in 1347.
- Killed a staggering number of Europeans within four years.
- Forced people to make difficult choices regarding caring for the sick.
- Some areas lost up to 80% of their population.
- Overall, around half of Europe's population is estimated to have died.
Giovanni Boccaccio's description:
- Details the horrific scenes of death and mass burials.
Modern Perspective:
- The bacterium, $Yersinia pestis$ , is now available as a plush toy.

A prolonged conflict between England and France over control of Continental Europe, lasting 116 years from 1337.
Relationship Between War and Stability:
- War leads to instability, and instability leads to war.
- Poor harvests and disease outbreaks increased the likelihood of war, and war worsens these conditions.
Impact on Society:
- Increased instability in food supply.
- Challenged cultural beliefs like chivalry.

Code of conduct for knights, emphasizing respect and trust on the battlefield.
- Knights were to be held for ransom rather than killed.
Decline of Chivalry:
- English kings hired mercenaries who looted and plundered, acting unchivalrously.
- Mercenaries continued marauding even during truces for profit.

The war led to military innovations:
- English and Welsh longbowmen were deadly accurate, contributing to victories like the Battle of Agincourt.
- The French innovated cannons on ships, later used by the English in land battles.
- Cannons relied on gunpowder, a Chinese invention.

A French peasant girl born in 1412 who rose to prominence.
Role in the War:
- Inspired by visions, she led French forces to drive out the English.
- Helped Charles get crowned as Charles VII of France in 1429.
Capture and Death:
- Captured by the Burgundians and handed over to the English.
- Burned at the stake in 1431.

Life in the 14th and 15th centuries was challenging.
- High rates of murder and violent crime.
- Routine risk of dying in war.
- Common malnutrition and stunting.
- High child mortality rates (possibly 50% before age five).

Conflict over authority: Did the church have authority over the Catholic world, or did kings have ultimate authority in their kingdoms?
- Pope Boniface VIII asserted papal supremacy in 1302.
- King Philip IV of France wanted to tax the clergy.
- Boniface threatened excommunication, and Philip had him kidnapped.
- Boniface was reportedly tortured and died after his release in 1303.

Philip arranged for the election of a French pope in 1305, who was installed in Avignon.
- Led to the perception that the papacy was controlled by the French kings.

Pope Gregory XI moved the papacy back to Rome in 1377 but then died.
The cardinals elected an Italian pope, causing the French cardinals to elect a French pope in Avignon.
Two Popes:
- Resulted in a schism with two popes.
Impact:
- Damaged the church's spiritual leadership.
- Clergy's inability to provide guidance during the Black Death further undermined the church.

The church's authority was undermined by:
- Disunity.
- Stories of unspiritual indulgences.
Rise of Common Spiritual Leaders:
- People turned to figures like Catherine of Siena for guidance.
- Catherine urged Pope Gregory XI to return to Rome and undertook diplomatic missions.
Resolution of the Schism:
- A council elected Martin V as the single pope in 1417 after a period with three popes.

European Christendom declined in power.
Fall of Constantinople:
- The Ottomans captured Constantinople in 1453, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire.
- Islam replaced Christianity as the leading religion, and the Hagia Sophia became a mosque.

Mercenaries undermined the feudal system.
Decline of Feudalism:
- The Black Death and warfare reduced the labor force, giving serfs more leverage.
- Serfs demanded freedom due to the increased value of their labor.
Peasant Revolts:
- Peasants rebelled against the nobility, as seen in the Peasants' Revolt of 1381 in England.
Urban Unrest:
- Urban artisans demanded higher pay and an end to taxes, such as the Ciompi revolt in Florence in 1378.
Changing Motivations for Warfare:
- People fought for fame and career rather than ethical reasons or God's glory.

Proverbs reflected the harsh realities of life.
- "There's nothing more certain than death, and taxes."
- "The big fishes eat the smaller."
- "Men are good so long as it saves their skin."

Amidst the turmoil, new thinking and creativity emerged, leading to the Renaissance.
The Florence Cathedral was completed before the end of the Hundred Years' War.