9.2 Lifespan Theories Study Notes
Lifespan Theories
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
Discuss Freud’s theory of psychosexual development.
Describe the major tasks of child and adult psychosocial development according to Erikson.
Discuss Piaget’s view of cognitive development and apply the stages to understanding childhood cognition.
Describe Kohlberg’s theory of moral development.
Overview of Development Theories
The section presents various theories that explain how babies and children grow into happy, healthy adults. All of these theories highlight different aspects of development:
Freud’s psychosexual stages focus on personality development influenced by childhood experiences.
Erikson’s psychosocial theory emphasizes the social nature of development across the lifespan.
Piaget’s cognitive theory concentrates on the cognitive growth of children.
Kohlberg’s theory addresses moral development in relation to cognitive development.
Psychosexual Theory of Development (Sigmund Freud)
Background:
Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) proposed that personality development occurs during early childhood.
Freud believed childhood experiences significantly shape adult personality and behavior.
Discontinuous Development:
Freud viewed development as a series of stages where inadequate nurturance may result in fixation at a certain stage.
Psychosexual Stages: Five stages focused on different erogenous zones:
Oral Stage (0-1 years): Pleasure centers on the mouth (sucking, biting).
Anal Stage (1-3 years): Pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder control (potty training).
Phallic Stage (3-6 years): Pleasure centers on the genitals; coping with incestuous feelings (Oedipus/Electra complex).
Latency Stage (6-puberty): Dormant sexual feelings.
Genital Stage (puberty onward): Maturation of sexual interests.
Contributions:
While many of Freud’s theories lack support in modern research, he introduced the idea that early childhood experiences can influence adult personality.
Psychosocial Theory of Development (Erik Erikson)
Background:
Erik Erikson (1902–1994) modified Freud’s ideas to create a psychosocial theory emphasizing social interaction.
Personality development is a lifelong process, unlike Freud’s focus on early childhood.
Key Concept: Ego Identity
Erikson posits that our interactions shape our self-image, or ego identity.
Stages of Psychosocial Development: Eight stages each associated with a psychosocial task:
Trust vs. Mistrust (birth to 1 year): Develop trust in caregivers.
Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (1-3 years): Develop independence.
Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 years): Initiate activities and assert control.
Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12 years): Compare self to peers and develop competence.
Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-18 years): Develop a sense of self and personal identity.
Intimacy vs. Isolation (20s-40s): Form intimate relationships.
Generativity vs. Stagnation (40s-60s): Contribute to society and the next generation.
Integrity vs. Despair (60s onwards): Reflect on life and accomplishments with satisfaction.
Developmental Tasks:
Successful resolution of tasks leads to a healthy personality; failure leads to feelings of inadequacy.
Cognitive Theory of Development (Jean Piaget)
Background:
Jean Piaget (1896–1980) focused on children’s cognitive development rather than psychoanalytical or psychosocial aspects.
Cognitive Growth:
Piaget believed that children are naturally inquisitive and do not think like adults.
Stages of Cognitive Development: Four distinct stages:
Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years): Experience the world through senses and actions. Key developments:
Object Permanence: Understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen.
Stranger Anxiety: Fear of unfamiliar people.
Preoperational Stage (2-6 years): Represent things with words and images; lacks logical reasoning.
Egocentrism: Difficulty in seeing others' perspectives.
Pretend Play: Engaging in imaginative play.
Lack of understanding of conservation.
Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years): Logical thinking about concrete events; understand conservation and mathematical operations.
Formal Operational Stage (12 years and up): Abstract reasoning; problem-solving and moral reasoning.
Cognitive Processes:
Schemata: Organize knowledge and guide interpretation of the world.
Assimilation: Integrating new information into existing schemata.
Accommodation: Adjusting schemata when new information does not fit.
Postformal Stage:
Some researchers suggest an additional stage where adults integrate logic with emotion, recognizing that different situations may require different reasoning.
Theory of Moral Development (Lawrence Kohlberg)
Background:
Lawrence Kohlberg (1927–1987) built on Piaget’s work focusing on moral reasoning.
Moral Dilemma:
Kohlberg used moral dilemmas to gauge moral reasoning stages. Example: Heinz dilemma—whether Heinz should steal a drug to save his wife.
Stages of Moral Development:
Progresses from pre-conventional morality (focused on self-interest) to conventional morality (upholding laws and social rules) and finally post-conventional morality (abstract reasoning about universal principles).
High stage responses emphasize the value of human life over material concerns.
Critique and Alternatives:
Critics argue Kohlberg's theory does not adequately address gender differences in moral reasoning. Carol Gilligan proposed that women often prioritize relationships and connectedness over hierarchical principles seen in men.
Visual Aids
Figures Mentioned:
Figure 9.4: Example of Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Development.
Figure 9.5: Jean Piaget's Research Contributions.
Figure 9.6: Lawrence Kohlberg’s Levels of Moral Reasoning.
Summary
Theories by Freud, Erikson, Piaget, and Kohlberg provide comprehensive approaches to understanding human development from personality and social perspectives to cognitive and moral reasoning. Each theorist emphasizes different aspects and suggests that development is influenced by experiences, social interactions, and cognitive growth across the lifespan.