Earth and Space Sciences Practice Exam Flashcards

Examination Overview and Administrative Protocol

• Examination Details: Regents High School Examination in Earth and Space Sciences, held Friday, January 23, 2026, from $9:15\,a.m.$ to $12:15\,p.m.$

• Prohibited Devices: Possession or use of any communications device is strictly prohibited. Use results in immediate invalidation of the examination and a score of zero.

• Required Materials:

  • 2024 Edition Reference Tables for Earth and Space Sciences.

  • Four-function or scientific calculator.

• Recording Answers:

  • Multiple-choice questions (Part A) are recorded on a separate answer sheet.

  • Constructed-response questions are recorded in the test booklet.

  • Writing requirements: All answers must be in pen, except for graphs and drawings, which must be performed in pencil.

• Student Declaration: Students must sign a declaration upon completion, affirming they had no unlawful prior knowledge of questions and neither gave nor received assistance.

Evidence for the Big Bang Theory

• Definition: The Big Bang is a physical theory explaining the expansion of the universe from an initial state of high density and high temperature.

• Core Evidence:

  1. Chemical Composition: Measured amounts of elements throughout the universe.

  2. Accelerating Expansion: Observed expansion of space moving at increasing speeds.

  3. Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR): Discovery of relic radiation from the early universe.

• Evolution of the Universe Model:

  • $0$ seconds: Big Bang event.

  • $10^{-32}$ seconds: Inflation occurs.

  • $1\,microsecond$: Protons form (Universe cools, sub-atomic particles exist; photons/light particles are scattered).

  • $0.01\,second$: Nuclear fusion begins ($\sim 10\,billion\,K$).

  • $20\,minutes$: Nuclear fusion ends (Light remains scattered; sub-atomic nuclear particles combine).

  • $380,000\,years$: Universe cools ($3000\,K$) and becomes transparent (light no longer scattered); neutral hydrogen forms; CMBR is emitted.

  • $13.8\,billion\,years$: Modern universe (temperature variations in CMBR correspond to galaxy formation).

• Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation Detail Statements:

  • Statement 1: CMBR provides evidence because it is energy, predicted by scientists, distributed throughout the universe.

  • Statement 2: CMBR is detectable because the universe cooled and then became transparent.

  • Statement 3: Variations in CMBR indicate galaxies formed in areas of higher density.

Hubble’s Law and Galactic Motion

• Edwin Hubble (1920s): Used Cepheid variable stars (which brighten and fade predictably) to determine the distance of galaxies from Earth.

• Hubble's Graph (1929):

  • Variables: Recessional velocity ($km/s$) plotted against distance from Earth measured in parsecs ($1\,parsec = 3.26\,light\,years$).

  • Relationship: The graph shows a proportional relationship; as distance increases, recessional velocity increases.

  • Data Analysis:

    • Most galactic speeds were obtained via red-shift data.

    • Galaxies with negative recessional velocities are traveling toward Earth.

    • Galaxies at $2 \times 10^6\,parsecs$ show velocities generally higher than those closer to Earth.

• Support for Big Bang: Galaxies farther from Earth have greater recessional velocities, serving as evidence for an expanding universe.

Stellar Composition, Nucleosynthesis, and Lifespan

• Sun Characteristics:

  • Elements: Hydrogen and Helium.

  • Mass: $1.99 \times 10^{30}\,kg$.

• Betelgeuse Characteristics:

  • Elements: Helium, Carbon, Oxygen, Neon, Magnesium, Sodium, and Iron.

  • Mass: $3.28 \times 10^{31}\,kg$.

• Comparison:

  • Betelgeuse has a shorter lifespan than the Sun because higher mass increases the rate of nucleosynthesis (fusion).

  • In Betelgeuse, helium has already fused into heavier elements (up to iron).

Ocean Circulation and Plastic Pollution

• Ever Laurel Incident (1992): A container ship lost twelve $40-foot$ containers during a storm on January 10. Over $28,000$ plastic bath toys were released.

• Great Pacific Garbage Patch (GPGP):

  • Size: $1.6\,million\,km^2$ ($11$ times the size of New York State).

  • Formation Areas: Found within ocean gyres where water is calm.

• Circulation Patterns:

  • Bath toys moved along the North Pacific Current followed by the Alaska Current.

  • Causes of Global Circulation: Landmass distribution and density/heat energy differences (convection).

  • Prevailing Winds: A primary driver of plastic toy distribution.

• GPGP Composition (Mass vs. Quantity):

  • Mass: Dominated by fishing gear, floats, and crates.

  • Quantity: Dominated by small fragments (< 5\,cm) and food/drink containers.

• Bioaccumulation: Plastics break down into microplastics, ingested by plankton, transferring up the food chain to fish and humans.

• Biodiversity Impacts: Sea turtles mistake plastic bags for jellyfish prey. Reducing plastic bags supports turtle populations by stabilizing their actual food source.

Design Solutions for Waterway Cleanup

• River Removal Method:

  • Mechanism: Floating barriers at river mouths funnel plastic into collection areas.

  • Pros: Low cost; captures plastic before it enters oceans; protects coastline biodiversity.

  • Cons: Needs manual removal; ineffective for microplastics (< 1\,mm).

• Ocean Removal Method:

  • Mechanism: Giant C-shaped tube (boom) driven by wind and waves, using a sea anchor to slow movement so garbage is captured.

  • Pros: Effective over large areas; private funding; avoids community odors.

  • Cons: Impacts surface life (to $5\,meters$ depth); high maintenance; ineffective for microplastics.

Evolution of Early Earth Systems

• The Great Oxidation Event (GOE):

  • Timeline: Began $\sim 2.7\,Ga$ (billion years ago) with the evolution of cyanobacteria (forming stromatolites) in the oceans.

  • Mechanism: Photosynthesis released oxygen into seawater; eventually escaped into the atmosphere between $2.4$ and $2.1\,Ga$.

  • Chemical Reaction: Oxygen reacted with atmospheric methane ($CH_4$).

  • Climate Impact: Decreased methane levels and increased oxygen levels led to less energy absorption by the atmosphere, triggering the earliest ice ages.

• Geological Evidence:

  • Huronian Supergroup: $12-km$ thick geological formation providing evidence of major glaciation.

  • Dating: Used Uranus-to-Lead ($U-Pb$) isotope ratios.

  • Dropstones: Rocks of varying sizes carried by glaciers and dropped into marine sediments; characteristic of glacial episodes.

  • Banded Iron Formations (BIFs): Sedimentary rocks formed when iron ions in oceans reacted with early free oxygen released by stromatolites.

• Temporal Sequence of Events (Oldest to Youngest):

  1. Formation of Earth.

  2. First oceans form.

  3. Iron enters the ocean from black smokers.

  4. First appearance of banded iron formations.

  5. The Great Oxidation Event.

Mineral Resources and Land Reclamation in New York State

• Adirondack Mineral Identification: Garnet (the NY State mineral).

  • Properties: Dark red color, glassy luster, scratches glass, colorless streak, uneven fracture.

• Limestone and Dolostone Mining:

  • Third largest number of mines in NYS.

  • Primary use: Crushed stone for construction and highways.

  • Environmental impact: Mines must be "reclaimed" (returned to ecological/economic use).

• Woodbourne Flats Mine Reclamation:

  • Black Willow Planting: Stabilizes river banks and reduces flooding impacts.

  • 35-acre Pond: Captures runoff to reduce sediment release into rivers.

  • Vegetation around Pond: Stabilizes slopes and restores the original habitat.

• Recycled Asphalt Pavement (RAP):

  • Process: Milling machines grind existing roads on-site; mixed with $1-3\%$ emulsifier.

  • Benefits: Does not require mining/quarrying; no reclamation needed; lower transport fuel; extends quarry lifespan.

  • Carbon Emissions: Increased RAP blending ratio leads to decreased $CO_2$ emissions ($kg\,CO_2/m^2$), mitigating global warming.

The Pluto-Charon Binary System

• Classification: Pluto is a dwarf planet; Charon is its largest moon (half Pluto's size).

• The Five Moons of Pluto:

  1. Charon: Mean distance $19,640\,km$; Eccentricity $0.0022$.

  2. Styx: Mean distance $42,656\,km$; Eccentricity $0.0058$.

  3. Nix: Mean distance $48,694\,km$; Eccentricity $0.0020$.

  4. Kerberos: Mean distance $57,783\,km$; Eccentricity $0.0033$.

  5. Hydra: Mean distance $64,738\,km$; Eccentricity $0.0059$.

• Orbital Mechanics (Kepler's Laws):

  • Increasing orbital period corresponds to increasing average orbital distance.

  • For Styx as it orbits Pluto: orbital speed and gravitational attraction are not constant (due to elliptical orbit represented by eccentricity).

• Tidal Locking: Both Pluto and Charon have rotational periods of $6.4\,Earth\,days$; the same side of Charon always faces Pluto.

• Formation Theories: Moons may be debris from impacts with Pluto or Charon (evidenced by large craters on Charon, $240\,km$ in diameter).

Doggerland and Post-Glacial History

• Doggerland: Ancient land bridge connecting France to England.

  • Glacial Event: Glaciers melted between $20,000$ and $9,000\,ybp$ (years before present).

  • Climate Change: Dublin, Ireland experienced increased temperature and humidity due to the North Atlantic Current.

• Storegga Slide ($8200\,ybp$):

  • Underwater landslide triggered a tsunami.

  • Impact Heights: Faroe ($14\,meters$), Lyngen ($2\,meters$), Hommelstø ($3\,meters$), Bjugn ($6\,meters$).

• Hommelstø Sediment Analysis:

  • Cross-section shows layers including lake mud, marine mud, and tsunami deposits (sand/gravel).

  • Tsunami deposits contain the largest-sized sediments (gravel/peat clasts/soil clasts).

• Modern Travel Impact: Eurostar train releases only $6\,g/km$ of carbon per passenger, compared to $255\,g/km$ (short-haul flight) or $19\,g/km$ (ferry), impacting the atmosphere the least.

Greenland Ice Sheet and Albedo Feedback

• Coverage: Covers $80\%$ of Greenland.

• Thickness: Maximum of $3205\,m$.

• Ice Mass Loss (1971–2022):

  • Rate of change ($2010\text{--}2022$): Loss of approximately $250\,Gt/year$.

• Albedo Effect (% Sunlight Reflected):

  • Fresh snow/ice: $85\text{--}95\%$.

  • Bare ice: $50\%$.

  • Sea ice: $60\%$.

  • Soil/exposed ground: $5\text{--}30\%$.

  • Ocean: $5\text{--}10\%$.

• Feedback Mechanism: As ice melts, lower-albedo surfaces (soil/ocean) are exposed, absorbing up to $80\%$ more radiation, causing regional warming and rising sea levels.

• Thermohaline Circulation Effect: Increased melting/rainfall increases freshwater, decreasing ocean salinity and density off the coast of Greenland, which prevents warm surface water from moving north and sinking (impacting global currents).

Asteroid Bennu and OSIRIS-REx Mission

• Asteroid Characteristics: Age $4.6\,billion\,years$. Mean distance $1.1\,AU$. Orbit tilted $5^{\circ}$ relative to Earth.

• Origin: Original source likely contained CO ice, which forms at $30\,AU$ ($4500\,million\,km$) from the Sun, implying Bennu formed near Neptune and migrated.

• Deflection Options:

  1. Kinetic Impactor (DART): Striking with a spacecraft ($6.6\,km/s$) to change velocity/trajectory.

  2. Nuclear Warhead: Exploding nearby to alter the path.

  3. Yarkovsky Effect: Using solar radiation/albedo (via painting or foil) for a continuous, slow orbital change.

• Collision Risk: Potential collision with Earth in $2182$.

Letchworth Gorge and Geologic Processes

• Geology: Primarily Shales and Sandstones from the Late Devonian Period.

• Differential Erosion: Sandstone is more resistant than shale.

• Mount Morris Dam: Built to control Genesee River flows, reducing flooding and property loss for Rochester, NY.

• Safety Risk: Locations on the outside of river curves (X) have higher risks of landslides due to gravity and weathering.

Global Energy and Mineral Resources

• Kennecott Utah Copper Mine: Large open-pit mine near Salt Lake City.

• Mining Impacts: Topsoil loss, land deforestation, subsidence, groundwater contamination, and acid mine drainage.

• Transportation Comparison:

  • Gas-Powered Car: Requires $22.3\,kg$ copper; releases $411\,g\,CO_2/mile$.

  • Electric Car: Requires $53.2\,kg$ copper; releases $32\,g\,CO_2/mile$. Battery contains $185\,kg$ minerals.

• Copper Sustainability: Known reserves could be exhausted in $105\,years$ at current rates. Recycling is necessary beyond that timeframe.

The Carboniferous Period and Coal Formation

• Biosphere Changes: Great forests and giant swamps led to increased photosynthesis, significantly increasing atmospheric oxygen ($31\%$ vs modern $21\%$).

• Atmospheric Composition: Low $CO_2$ and high $O_2$ levels during the late Carboniferous resulted in regional cooling.

• Dragonfly Giants: Meganeura had wingspans up to $65\,cm$ due to high oxygen concentrations.

• Coal Stages: Swamp environment $\rightarrow$ Peat $\rightarrow$ Brown coal $\rightarrow$ Sub-bituminous $\rightarrow$ Bituminous $\rightarrow$ Anthracite. Higher heat and pressure lead to higher-grade coal.

• New York Examples: Binghamton (Allegheny Plateau) contains peat that forms into brown coal.