Islamic Modernism Notes

Muhammad Ali Pasya (1765 – 1849)

Full name: Muhammad Ali Pasya, also known as Pasya or Muhammad Ali.
Pioneer of Islamic revival in Egypt.
Born in January 1765 in Kawalla, northern Greece.
Father: Ibrahim Agha, from a poor Turkish family.
Early Life: Worked to support his family due to their economic condition and lacked formal education.
Character traits: Intelligent, brave, and persistent.
Achievement: Liberated Egypt from Napoleon's French forces.
Appointed as Wali (governor) of Egypt by the Sultan of Turkey.
Main ideas and innovations:
- Sending Egyptian students to study in France, Italy, England, and Austria (311 students between 1813–1849).
- Military innovation: Employed a French officer to train the Egyptian military and sent top students to France for military education.
- Economic and agricultural innovation: Improved old irrigation systems, built new ones, cultivated cotton, brought in experts from Europe, and established agricultural schools.
- Educational innovation: Established modern schools, including:
  - Military School
  - Technical School
  - Medical School
  - Apothecary School
  - Mining School
  - Agricultural School
  - School of Translation
  - Elementary School
  - Middle School
  - Polytechnic School
  - Accounting School
  - Civil School
  - Irrigation School
  - Industrial School
  - Administration School
  - School for Naval Officers
  - Maritime Industry School
  - Higher Institute of Medicine
- Curriculum Innovation: Integrated modern sciences into the education curriculum, categorized into five areas:
  - Language sciences: Italian, French, Turkish, and Persian.
  - Social sciences: History, geography, economics, anthropology, state administration, state education, social education, philosophy, military science, and law.
  - Natural sciences: Physics, pharmacy, natural science, medicine, technology, architecture, and chemistry.
  - Mathematics: Arithmetic and advanced mathematics.
  - Skills: General skills and family welfare education.
Impact of Pasya's Innovations:
- Contributed to the economic stability and rapid development of Egypt, particularly in Cairo and Alexandria.
- Laid the groundwork for the emergence of Islamic reformist figures in later periods.

Rifa’ah Baidawi Rafi’at at-Tahtawi (1801 - 1873)

Full name: Rifa’ah Baidawi Rafi’at at-Tahtawi; commonly known as At-Tahtawi.
Education: Completed studies at Al-Azhar University in Cairo at age 16, then pursued a master's degree in the Egyptian Army and studied for five years in France.
Work in France: Translated 12 books and treatises.
Career: Appointed as director of the school of translation during Muhammad Ali Pasya's rule.
Role of School of Translation: Served as a center for translating books from European languages into Arabic, similar to Baitul Hikmah during the Abbasid Dynasty.
Translated approximately 20 French books and edited dozens of other translated works.
Key ideas:
- Education:
  - Advocated for universal education for all genders and social classes to achieve equality and women's emancipation.
  - Emphasized that education should cultivate character and instill a love for the nation, in addition to imparting knowledge.
- Economics:
  - Suggested improving agriculture by cultivating crops like cotton, grapes, and olives, as well as beekeeping and silkworm farming.
  - Advocated for affordable fertilizers and improved irrigation systems.
  - Recommended improving roads, bridges, and communication infrastructure.
- Welfare:
  - Believed societal welfare could be achieved by adhering to Islamic teachings and fostering good moral character to produce generations that could advance the economy.
- Governance:
  - Ideal governance is based on the model of Prophet Muhammad and his companions, with justice administered according to established laws.
  - Suggested a separation of powers into three branches: legislative, executive, and judiciary.
- Patriotism:
  - Defined homeland as one’s place of birth and heritage, coexisting with Islamic brotherhood.
  - Argued that national identity and patriotism are crucial for creating a civilized society.
- Ijtihad:
  - Believed that ijtihad (independent legal reasoning) should be practiced by qualified scholars, as detailed in his book al-Qaul al-Sadid fi al-Ijtihad wa taqlid.
- Modern Science:
  - Argued that modern science and rational thinking do not contradict Islamic law.
  - Suggested that modern science can enhance the ability of Muslims to perform ijtihad and improve the welfare of Muslim societies, following European advancements.
Works:
- Manahijul Albab al-Misriyah fi Manahijil Adab al-Asriyyah (Paths for Egyptians to Understand Modern Literature)
- Al-Mursyidul Amin lil Banati wal Banin (Educational Guidance for Boys and Girls)
- Al-Qaul as-Sadid fi al-Ijtihad wa taqlid (The Correct Statement on Ijtihad and Taqlid)
- Al-Madzahib al-Arba’ fi al-Fiqih (The Four Schools of Thought in Fiqh)

Jamaludin Al-Afghani (1838 – 1897)

Born in Kabul, Afghanistan in 1838 and died in Istanbul in 1897.
A prominent Islamic reformist who lived and worked in various countries.
His ideas and reforms had a significant impact, especially in Egypt.
Early life spent in Afghanistan, but most of his activism occurred in Egypt, Hijaz, Yemen, Russia, Turkey, England, India, and France.
Intellectual Achievements: Mastered various disciplines by the age of 18, including religious studies, philosophy, law, history, metaphysics, medicine, science, astronomy, and astrology.
Career: Served as Prime Minister in Afghanistan but left due to British interference.
Later moved to India, then to Egypt in 1871.
Key ideas:
- Causes of Islamic Decline:
  - Poor morals and indifference to knowledge.
  - Weakness in all sectors and insufficient efforts to educate the people in religious principles and modern sciences.
  - Misinterpretation of qadha (divine decree) and qadar (destiny), leading to a lack of effort and hard work.
  - Misunderstanding of a Hadith about the decline of Muslims at the end of time, causing passivity and weak Islamic solidarity.
- Pan-Islamism:
  - Advocated for the unification of all Muslims worldwide to counter Western colonial dominance.
- Gender Equality:
  - Believed in the equality of men and women as both possess intellect.
  - His ideas influenced the emancipation of women.
- Political Reform:
  - Sought to transform autocratic governments into democracies.
Works:
- Ar-Raddu ’alad dahriyyin (Refutation of the Materialists)
- Al-Qadha wa al-Qadar (Divine Decree and Destiny)
- Risalah Raddi Nahuriyah (Response to Questions by Muhammad Wasil)
- Falsafah Syahadat hadhrat sayyid al-Syuhda (The Philosophy of Martyrdom)
- Mubahasat al-Ernest Renan Dar Tawafuq Islam (Discussions with Ernest Renan on Islam)

Muhammad Abduh (1849 - 1905)

Full name: Muhammad Abduh Hasan Khairullah.
Born in Mahallat Nasr, Egypt in 1849, descended from Umar bin Khattab on his mother's side.
Education: Studied religion under Sheikh Ahmad in 1862 and attended Al-Azhar University in Cairo in 1866.
Career: Became the first Mufti of Egypt on June 3, 1899.
Died on July 11, 1905.
Key ideas:
- Education:
  - Proposed integrating curricula between madrasahs and secular schools to eliminate the dichotomy between religious scholars and modern scientists.
  - Advocated for the development of educational institutions, including establishing government secondary schools in various fields (administration, military, health, industry, etc.).
  - Revised curricula for primary, secondary, vocational, and university levels at Al-Azhar.
  - Introduced subjects like mathematics, geometry, algebra, geography, history, and calligraphy into non-formal education.
  - Established a pharmacy specifically for Al-Azhar students.
  - Allocated state funds and endowments for teachers' salaries.
  - Integrated philosophy, logic, and modern sciences into Al-Azhar's curriculum.
- Ijtihad:
  - Stressed that the door of ijtihad is open to Muslims and is essential for reinterpreting Islamic teachings.
- Rationalism:
  - Asserted that Islam is a rational religion compatible with reason, which promotes the advancement of knowledge.
- Constitutionalism:
  - Believed that state power should be limited by a constitution.
Works:
- Tafsir al-Manar (completed by his student Rashid Ridha)
- Risalah at-Tauhid (Theology of Unity)
- Syarh Nahjil Balaghah (Commentary on Nahj al-Balagha)
- Islahu al-Mahakim al-Syar’iyyah (Reforming the Sharia Courts)
- Al-Islam ar al-Radd ‘ala Muntaqidih (Islam: A Refutation of its Critics)

Rashid Ridha (1865 - 1935)

Full name: Muhammad Rashid bin Ali Ridha bin Syamsudin bin Baha’uddin al-Qalmuni al-Husaini.
Born in Qalamun near Tripoli, Lebanon, on September 23, 1865.
Early Life: Spent his time reading rather than playing like other children.
Education: Studied at Madrasah al-Wathaniyah al-Islamiyah (National Islamic School) in Tripoli.
Influenced by the ideas of Jamaludin al-Afghani and Muhammad Abduh.
Met Muhammad Abduh in 1897 and, with Abduh's approval, started publishing the Al-Manar magazine to promote Islamic reform and liberate Muslims from colonialism.
Key ideas:
- Return to Original Islamic Teachings:
  - Believed that the decline of Muslims was due to their deviation from true Islamic teachings as practiced by Prophet Muhammad and his companions.
- Dynamism:
  - Argued against fatalism, asserting that Islam encourages dynamism.
- Modern Science:
  - Stated that modern science does not contradict Islam and should be embraced by Muslims seeking advancement.
- Ijtihad and Legal Flexibility:
  - Stressed that fiqh laws related to social matters are not absolute and should be adapted to suit the times.
  - Advocated for ijtihad to ensure the continuity of Islamic law in meeting contemporary needs.
- Unity:
  - Emphasized that unity is essential for the progress of Muslims.
Works:
- Tarikh al-Ustadz al-Imam al-Syekh Muhammad Abduh (Biography of Imam Muhammad Abduh)
- Nida’ li jins al-latif (A Call to the Fair Sex)
- Al-Wahyu Muhammad (The Revelation of Muhammad)
- Yusr al-Islam wa ushul al-Tasyri’ al ‘am (The Easiness of Islam and General Principles in Legislation)
- Huquq al-Mar’ah al-Shalihah (The Rights of a Righteous Woman)

Muhammad Iqbal (1877 - 1938)

Born in Sialkot, Punjab, on November 9, 1877.
Came from a middle-class family.
Received religious education from his parents, who were Sufis.
Education: Studied at Maktab (religious school), Scottish Mission School, and Government College in Lahore; earned a B.A. in 1897 and an M.A. with a gold medal two years later; also studied at Cambridge University and earned a Ph.D. from the University of Munich.
Career: Elected President of the Muslim League in 1930, playing a strategic role in the Indian independence movement and was key in the establishment of Pakistan.
Though he did not live to see Pakistan's creation, he is remembered as a national hero.
Iqbal International Airport in Lahore, Pakistan, is named in his honor.
Key Ideas:
- Civilizational Synthesis:
  - Aimed to build a civilization that blends Western and Eastern elements through reason (ziraki) and love (isyq).
  - Believed that combining these elements would create a new world, filling the deficiencies of both civilizations.
- The Quran as a Basis for Action:
  - Viewed the Quran as emphasizing action over ideals.
  - Advocated for using the Quran as a foundation for a new civilization, seeing life as a creative and progressive process.
- Ijtihad as a Principle of Movement:
  - Saw ijtihad as essential for adapting Islamic teachings to the demands of each era.
- Dynamic Living:
  - Aspired to awaken Muslims from their "long sleep" and encourage them to embrace a dynamic life, characterized by complex, critical, and creative thinking, progress, self-defense, and a broad personality.
- Education for Individuality:
  - Believed that the purpose of education is to strengthen the individuality of students, preparing them to face life's challenges.
Works:
- The Development of Metaphysics in Persia (1908)
- Asraai Khudi (1916)
- The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam (1934)
- Musafir (1936)
- Zarbi Kalim (1937)

KH. Ahmad Dahlan (1868 – 1923)

Born in Kauman, Yogyakarta, on August 1, 1868, to KH. Abu Bakar and Siti Aminah.
Some sources say 1869.
Born Muhammad Darwis, later becoming known as Ahmad Dahlan after returning from Hajj and studying in Mecca.
Education: Studied the Quran and Islamic principles with his father, who was a khatib at the Gedhe Kauman Mosque.
studied with KH. Muhammad Saleh, Kiai Muhammad Nur, KH. Abdul Hamid, Kiai Muhsin, and KH. Sholeh Darat (Semarang).
Studied with KH. Hasyim Asy’ari under KH. Sholeh Darat, with whom he maintained a respectful friendship.
Further studies in Mecca with Sheikh Ahmad Khatib Minangkabawi, Syaikh Nahrawi al-Banyumasi, Syaikh Bakri as-Syatha, Syaikh Nawawi alBantani, Syaikh Mahfudz at-Tarmasi, and exchanged ideas with Rasyid Ridha.
Absorbed reformist ideas during his time in Mecca, which influenced his approach to religious life in Indonesia.
Success in reforming the Indonesian community led to the founding of Muhammadiyah on November 18, 1912.
Key Ideas:
- Aims of Islamic Education:
  - To develop individuals who are moral, knowledgeable in religion, broad-minded, and understand worldly matters.
  - Advocated for teaching both religious and general knowledge in Muhammadiyah schools.
- Nationalism and Patriotism:
  - Education should foster nationalism and patriotism to encourage working for society's betterment.
- Integrated Curriculum:
  - Education should cover moral and ethical education, personal development, and community education.
- Integrated Model:
  - combined the pesantren and public-school models.
  - Blended pesantren teaching methods with Western education, realized through educational institutions adapted to Indonesian culture with an Islamic mission.
Also established Muhammadiyah orphanages and the Hizbul Wathan scouting organization.
Established AlQismul Arqa, Mu’allimin, Mu’allimat Muhammadiyah, tabligh schools, and Kulliyah Muballighin as educational institutions.
Implemented modern administrative and organizational systems.
Ensured educational ventures were under organizational control rather than personal ownership.
Grounded his thinking in the Quran and Hadith.

KH. Hasyim Asy’ari (1871–1947)

Born in Gedang Jombang, East Java, on February 14, 1871.
Committed to seeking knowledge, studying directly with his father and grandfather, who were also heads of pesantren.
Continued studies at various pesantren in Java, including Wonorejo Mojokerto, Wonokoyo Probolinggo, Langitan Tuban, Tenggilis Surabaya, Kademangan Bangkalan Madura, Siwalan Panji Buduran Sidoarjo, and Semarang.
Studied with KH. Ahmad Dahlan under KH. Sholeh Darat in Semarang.
Spent seven years in Mecca to deepen his religious knowledge, studying with Syaikh Mahfudz al-Tirmisi, Syaikh Ahmad Khatib al-Minankabawi, Syaikh Nawawi al-Bantani, and others.
Outstanding achievement in Mecca was being trusted to teach at the Masjidil Haram.
Notable students included Syaikh Sa’dullah al-Maymani (Mufti of Bombay, India), Syaikh Umar Hamdan (hadith expert in Mecca), and KH. Wahab Hasbullah.
Established the Tebuireng Jombang pesantren, transforming a community known for gambling and crime into a center of learning.
Also founded Nahdlatul Ulama (NU).
Key Ideas:
- Tasawuf:
  - Influenced by al-Ghazali, aiming to refine the behavior of Muslims in accordance with Islamic principles.
- Resistance Against Colonialism:
  - Initiated the Jihad Resolution on October 22, 1945, now commemorated as National Santri Day.
- Political Unity:
  - Called on Muslims to build and maintain unity.
  - Emphasized that governance in Islam should aim to provide equality, serve interests through deliberation, and maintain justice.
- Education aims to instill correct and complete understanding of Islamic teachings and consistently apply them in daily life.
  - Actions and words should be based on acquired knowledge.
Notable Works:
- Adab al-Alim wa al-Muta’allim (Etiquette of the Scholar and the Student)
- Al-Nur al-Mubin (The Clear Light)
- Al-Tanbihat wa al-Wajibat (Admonitions and Obligations)
- Al-Durar al-Muntatsirah (Scattered Pearls)
- Al-Tibyan (Clarification)
- Al-Mawa’idz (Sermons)
- Risalah fi Ta’akud al-Akhdz bi Madzahib al-A’immah al-Arba’ah (Treatise on the Importance of Adhering to the Four Schools of Thought)