Linkage Institutions Study Guide
Linkage Institutions
Political Parties, Interest Groups, Campaigns and Voting Behavior, Media
Chapter 8 - Political Parties:
Big Idea: Political parties provide opportunities for participation and influence how people relate to government and policy-makers.
Functions and Impacts: (role the party plays in each, and what factors limit their influence)
Mobilization and education of voters:
Party platforms:
Candidate recruitment:
Campaign management (+ fundraising and media):
Committee and party leadership systems in legislatures:
Special Note:
Parties have adapted to candidate-centered campaigns, and their role in nominating candidates has been weakened.
Parties modify their policies and messaging to appeal to various demographic coalitions.
Parties use communication technology and voter-data management to disseminate, control, and clarify political messages and enhance outreach and mobilization efforts.
Terms: (def and example)
Party era: A time dominated by one party
Critical election: electoral realignment where new issues emerge, new coalitions replace old ones, and the majority is often displaced by the minority
Regional Realignment: a major change in the composition of party coalitions caused by a new or pressing issue
Dealignment: a large portion of the electorate abandons its prev. partisan affiliation, w/o developing a new one
Divided government: control of the executive branch and legislative branch is split between two political parties
Third party: political parties other than the two dominant parties (D&R)
Party polarization: the growing gap between the stands of the parties policy issues
Party organization: (how parties modify their policies and messaging to appeal to diff demographic coalitions)
Local level:
State level:
National level: (including coalitions)
Critical elections: (how the election changed the structure of the political party and/or realignment that occurred)
1800:
1860:
1896:
1932:
1968:
2016:
Special Note: Elections and political parties are related to major policy shifts or initiatives, occasionally leading to political realignments of voting constituencies.
Third parties: (explain factors that limit success of third parties)
examples that demonstrate the incorporation of third-party agendas into platforms of major political parties serves as a barrier to third party and independent candidate success:
Chapter 10 - Interest Groups:
Interest Group:
Political parties vs Interest groups: (determine who does what)
Nominate candidates, run campaigns, give cues to voters, articulate policy, coordinate policy, educate voters and office holders, draft legislation, mobilize membership to apply pressure on legislators and government policies
Political Parties:
Interest groups:
Both:
Interest groups and influence on public policy: how interest groups influence in elections and policymaking may be affected by each
Inequality of political and economic resources:
Unequal access to decision makers (iron triangles v. issue networks):
“Free ride problem”:
Single issue groups:
Professional organizations:
Ideological/Social Movements (civil rights/equality igs)
Protest movements:
Economic Interest Groups:
Environmental Interest Groups:
Public Interest:
Special Note:
Single-issue groups, ideological/social movements, and protest movements form with the goal of impacting society and policy making.
Competing actors such as interest groups, professional organizations, social movements, the military, and bureaucratic agencies influence policy making, such as the federal budget process, at key stages and to varying degrees.
Interest Group methods to influence policy: (definition, why and how it would be used to influence policy, example)
Lobbying: engaging in activities/communicating information aimed at influencing public officials, especially legislatures, and the policies the enact
Electioneering: Providing campaign support or money donations to specific candidates
Litigation: appealing to the courts or suing to get ideas across when legislation fails; includes filing amicus briefs
Mass mobilizaition: appeal to members/public opinions to help the cause
PACs: (define, how it affects the election process)
PACs:
Super PACs:
Soft money:
Hard money:
Issue Ads:
Special Notes:
Different types of political action committees (PACs) influence elections and policy making through fundraising and spending.
The benefits and drawbacks of modern campaigns are represented by:
Dependence on professional consultants
Rising campaign costs and intensive fundraising efforts
Duration of election cycles
Impact of and reliance on social media for campaign communication and fundraising
Chapter 9 - Campaigns and Voting Behavior:
Presidential Elections: (define, role in presidential elections)
Incumbency advantage phenomenon: incumbent president typically has a political advantage over challengers at elections
McGovern-Fraser Commission: 28-member commission that created the process in which we nominate presidential candidates today in 1969; rewrote the Democratic Party’s rules regarding selection of national convention delegates, established open procedures and affirmative action guidelines for selecting delegates
Effects: → more states shifting to primaries instead of caucasus, Republican Party also transformed
Superdelegates: (in Democratic Party) an unelected delegate who is free to support any candidate for the presidential nomination at the party National Convention; remnant of “old system”, technically has the power to sway the final vote, but isn’t exercised in modern times
Invisible primary: “money primary”, period between first well-known presidential candidates with strong supports showing interest in running, and the demonstration of public support for them in primaries/caucuses
during this period: primary candidates raise funds and attempt to gain support and party establishment; in order to see if they have a large enough platform to run
Effect: period can make or break candidates, those who don’t get enough support often end up bowing out of race before the primary season
Caucus: participants engage in a discussion and break into groups according to their preferred candidate; the one with most support moves on to county convention; goal is to gain delegates for the national convention
Primary: secret ballots for the candidate of their choice -- a poll; goal is to gain delegates for the national convention; more common in states than caucuses b/c takes less time and promotes more voter participation BUT voters tend to be less informed
Open vs. closed primaries:
Open primaries: voters of any affiliation can vote in the primary of any part, ex: does not have to be part of Republic party in order to vote for a Republican candidate
can lead to attempts to sabotage by other party by electing a weaker candidate, but can also be beneficial by allowing a Republican to vote for a more Conservative democrat, etc
Closed primaries: voters must be part of that party to vote for them; may increase polarization of primary stage by catering to only the party’s interests
Frontloading: moving up (in dates) of caucuses and primaries by state → increasing their influence in the selection of the party’s candidate → presidential nominees being determined early in the election year
Iowa and New Hampshire caucuses typically go first, but criticized for being unrepresentative of the country (mostly white) and exerted too much influence in the nomination process
Delegates: a person chosen to represent a group of people in a political assembly, decided upon by primaries and caucuses
The more delegates at national convention → bigger support you have to win
Party National Convention: meeting of delegates of a political party, go to vote to confirm their choice of candidates and select the presidential nominee
Nomination: selecting someone for a position
3 tasks completed at convention:
State delegates from primaries and caucuses selected to represent the people now “endorse” their candidates
Final presidential nominee will be officially announced at the end
Presidential candidate chooses a running mate (vice president)
General campaign: campaign in which candidates are running to be elected to offices - NOT like primaries which are used to narrow down the candidates for the general election; finalization of campaign between Republican vs. Democratic candidate
Televised debates: debates - presidential or in primaries, in which relevant issues are discussed and asked to candidates about opinions, chance for nation to watch and see more about candidate’s views, etc
General Election/Popular Vote: final presidential vote between mainRepublican and Democratic candidate, winners are determined by the electoral college; also includes third parties
Electoral College:
Electoral college: consists of 538 electors, represent casting the votes allocated by the winning of each state to contribute to each candidate
Calculated by adding # of senators + # of house members (DC also represented with 3)
Battleground state: swing state, can sway between Democratic and Republican and not consistently one or the other; typically fought over and is the determining factor in most elections
Winner-take-all allocation of votes:
Allocation of most states’ electoral votes:
Impact system has on campaigns:
Impact on voter turn-out:
Impact on third party success:
Two states that do NOT have winner-take-all allocation:
How a candidate can win popular vote but lose electoral college:
Where is the electoral college in the Constitution:
Mandate theory of elections: (p. 298)
Special Note: The winner-take-all allocation of votes per state under the setup of the Electoral College compared with the national popular vote for president raises questions about whether the Electoral College facilitates or impedes democracy.
Criticisms of Election Process: (criticisms/negatives, possible improvements)
Length of primary season:
Voter turnout of primaries and caucasus:
Order of state primaries/frontloading:
Cost of campaigns:
Influences of Special Interest Groups/Super-PACs:
Winner take all vs National Popular vote:
Congressional Elections: (define, role of each process in congress elections)
Incumbency advantage phenomenon:
Primary campaign:
General Election (Presidential)
Coattails:
General Election (Mid-term):
Governing of elections: (determine if its state or federal government that governs it)
Set times, locations, and most dates of elections, Has judicial jurisdiction on election policy, Certifies elections results days/weeks after Election Day, Draws congressional district lines, Enforces relevant civil rights legislation, Sets date for federal, general elections, Chooses format of ballots & how to file for candidacy, Administers and enforces campaign finance rules, Addresses suffrage in constitutional amendments, Creates rules and procedures for voter registration
State government:
Federal government:
Both:
Special Note: In addition to the impact that demographics and political efficacy can have on voter choice and turnout, structural barriers and type of election also affect voter turnout in the U.S.
Benefits/drawbacks in modern campaigns:
Professional consultants:
Intensive fundraising:
Length of election cycles:
Social media:
Internet and information technologies
Campaign Finance: Acts of Congress and Supreme Court Decisions: (year, description and outcome, constitutional principle)
Federal Election Campaign Act: *no const. principle
Federal Election Commission:
Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (McCain-Feingold)
Soft money:
527 Groups:
Independent expenditures:
Buckley v. Valeo:
Citizen United v. FEC:
SuperPAC:
Special Notes:
Federal legislation and case law pertaining to campaign finance demonstrate the ongoing debate over the role of money in political and free speech
Debates have increased over free speech and competitive and fair elections related to money and campaign funding (including contributions from individuals, political action committees, and political parties)
Political Participation: (definition, examples)
Conventional participation:
Grassroots:
Unconventional participation:
Civil Disobedience:
Models of Voting Behavior: (def and example)
Policy voting:
Rational-choice voting:
Retrospective voting:
Party-line voting:
Prospective voting:
Ticket splitting:
Amendments and political participation: how expanded opportunity for pol opp
15th Amendment: preserved access to voting regardless of race; allowed former slaves to vote
17th amendment: allowed people to vote for Senators
19th Amendment: preserved access to voting regardless of gender; allowed women to vote
24th Amendment: abolish usage of poll tax
26th amendment: people who are 18+ can vote; engage youth voters
Voting Rights Act of 1965: preservation of equal voting rights; cannot discriminate based on race
outlaw literacy tests, outline specific punishments for intimidating minority voters
Motor Voter Law: federal legislation -- states must allow people to register to vote when they sign up for a driver’s license
improved registration, but not turnout
Chapter 7 - Media
3 Roles of Media:
Gatekeeping: media sources decide what is newsworthy, and therefore, what goes onto the policy agenda
direct correlation b/w amount of coverage an issue gets and people’s perception of what issues are most important for the government to address
Watchdog: investigative journalism to inform public about government wrongdoing, holding them accountable
limits politicians → take less risks to prevent a PR nightmare
Scorekeeping (horserace): constantly publishing information about who is winning in elections
focus on polls & personalities, not substance
Media and the Agenda: (define, impacts on political process)
High-tech politics: behavior of citizens & policymakers are influenced by technological advancements
ex. onset of TVs, internet influencing “high-tech” stadiums for DNC
politicians are adapting their policymaking, conventions, and campaigning to cater to new kinds of media
Media event: staged primarily for the purpose of being covered; wouldn’t happen if media wasn’t there
politicians want to control the narrative about them in the media through staging events
Investigative journalism: journalism that investigates the workings of certain organizations, uncovering wrongdoings or facts previously unknown to the public
Watch-dog: news holding the government accountable & reporting on their coverups/immoral actions
limits politicians; take less risks to prevent PR attention
Print vs. Electronic Media:
print media heavily used by upper-class, educated electorate
more fact-based, still partisan alignment but not very obvious/strong
electronic media consumed by most, if not all, of population
typically more partisan, appeal to masses
Narrowcasting: media is aimed and focused on a particular group/audience; cater to specialized tastes
people are less exposed, and therefore less open, to new ideas/perspectives → hyperpartisanship
they can pick & choose what media they consume, so they likely pick media that agrees with them, creating an echo-chamber
Trial balloon: information sent out to the media to “test” audience’s reaction
can influence proposals/policymaking; based on reaction, politicians may tweak their actions in response
Sound bites: brief, memorable comment that fits into news segments
can be blown out of proportion to reflect a candidate’s entire reputation, or vice versa; can boost their overall credibility over one clip
Bias in the news: news leaning in one direction or other based on personal sentiment
What is the main goal of media, and main overriding bias?
main goal = making profit & appealing to audience
as a result, media is biased towards scandals & conflict; they rarely report on compromises or “good” things coming out of politics
additionally, some media sources are skewed liberal or conservative -- this is by design to narrowcast to certain types of political audiences
Election coverage: reporting on who’s winning/losing and key election conflicts/issues
Horse-race journalism: focuses more on poll results and speculation about a likely winner than on substantive differences between the candidates
can influence voters’ expectations of who will win (ex. Hillary’s 2016 loss) or can influence how voters even vote (ex. which primary candidate is likelier to win the general election)
may prioritize personality over substance, which hampers fully educated voting
Gate-keeper (agenda setting): media chooses what news to add in headlines, therefore controlling what the public views as “important” or “relevant
Policy agenda: set of issues, problems, or subjects that gets the attention of/is viewed as important by people involved in policymaking (e.g., government officials, government decision-makers)
if headline media doesn’t cover it, it likely goes unnoticed → this impacts minorities especially, because they are typically not the target audience of mass media, and therefore are not reported on
Internet and media: majority of news sources disseminate information via internet; most consumers use internet as main source of news information
internet makes it very easy to seek out media that fits a certain narrative, increasing hyperpartisanship
Special Note:
Traditional news media, new communication technologies, and advances in social media have profoundly influenced how citizens routinely acquire political information, including new events, investigative journalism, election coverage, and political commentary.
The media’s use of polling results to convey popular levels of trust and confidence in government can impact elections by turning such events into “horse races” based more on popularity and factors other than qualifications and platforms of candidates.
Political Participation and Media Coverage:
Describe how political participation is influenced by a variety of media coverage, analysis, and commentary on political events:
Explain how the increasing demand for media and political communications outlets from an ideologically diverse audience have led to debates over media bias and the impact of media ownership and partisan news sites:
Explain how the nature of democratic debate and the level of political knowledge among citizens is impacted by:
Increased media choices: can seek out media that aligns with pre-existing assumptions, ideas, and political alignments → creates an echo-chamber & partisan divides
24 hour news channels: instantaneous reporting, leading to
more accountability of government actions, since there was more awareness of it
more narrowcasting; need a dedicated base to be an audience for long broadcasting times
Ideologically oriented programming: allow consumers to seek out media they’ll agree with; also, since they must appeal to a certain party audience, unbiased reporting is no longer existent → facts are only displayed if they support a certain candidate or ideology
Consumer-driven media outlets and emerging tech that reinforce existing beliefs: same thing → hyperpartisanship
Media ownership: owned by private corporations which can influence narrative heavily
this means that they focus on adverts/commercials → need to make $$ somehow
will typically run media that does not paint parent corporations in a bad light, or media that presents a profit incentive
scandal > facts → need to engage viewers for profits
Uncertainty over the credibility of news sources and information: happens due to onslaught of fake news, which has been made easier with improved tech and access to internet