Thinking Like a Political Scientist: Course Introduction and Foundational Concepts
Course Overivew, Announcements, and Decorum
Top Hat Access:
Initially, you must access Top Hat through Brightspace's dedicated module once to integrate into the course system.
After initial setup, you can use Top Hat via Brightspace, the app, or a web browser.
Physical presence in class is required for Top Hat attendance and questions.
Attendance Policy: The lowest of attendance scores will be dropped.
Question Policy: Achieve or higher on questions to receive full credit.
Other Announcements:
Textbook Access: A Word document version of the textbook is available on Brightspace for those who prefer reading offline or printing.
Utilize Brightspace and attend TA discussion sections.
Lecture Decorum: Maintain professionalism in class and emails, acknowledging that attending college is a choice and the instructor is present and observing.
Defining Politics
Harold Lasswell's (1938) Definition: Politics is fundamentally about "who gets what, when, and how."
Who: Refers to any member of the polity (a political organization), including individuals, various groups (e.g., corporations, unions), and politicians.
What: Encompasses governmental programs, societal resources, fundamental rights, special privileges, and tax breaks.
When: Pertains to the timing of when these resources or rights are received.
How: Describes the specific processes and mechanisms through which something is obtained within a polity. This includes differentiating between democratic versus undemocratic, fair versus unfair, open versus closed processes, as well as the specific practices used and institutions engaged.
Contextual Note: This definition dates back to , prompting reflection on whether any elements might be missing in contemporary understanding.
Alternative Definition (David Hubert, textbook author): "Politics is the authoritative and legitimate struggle for limited resources or precious rights and privileges within the context of government, the economy, and society."
Struggle: This term highlights that political processes are often complex and not straightforward, and achieving change is inherently difficult.
Working Definitions:
Government: Defined as the composite collection of institutions and individuals recognized as the legitimate authority empowered to make decisions that govern a specific territory.
Institution: An established organization, custom, or practice that is significant within a society or political system. Examples include legislative bodies, courts, bureaucratic offices, civil marriage, and corporations.
Political Imagination
Definition: The capacity to conceive and develop novel and inventive approaches to engaging in politics, structuring society, and addressing collective challenges.
Key Aspect: Asking "What if" questions to explore possibilities.
Two Core Components:
Envisioning Different Futures: The ability to imagine alternative societal and political arrangements.
Agency in Shaping the Future: Recognizing that the future is not predetermined but can be actively shaped through the combination of imagination, organized effort, and concerted action.
The Three Dimensions of Power
First Dimension: Formal Decision-Making (Robert Dahl, )
Basic Idea: This involves directly influencing someone to act in a way they would not otherwise choose.
Dahl's Formulation: "A has power over B to the extent that he can get B to do something that he would not otherwise do."
Summary: Actor A directly compels Actor B to perform an action against B's initial preferences.
Second Dimension: Mobilization of Bias (Bachrach & Baratz, )
Detailed Explanation: In this dimension, Actor B is fundamentally prevented from even expressing or raising their preferences. Actor A strategically establishes the conditions and rules of the game such that B never has the opportunity to articulate their interests in the first place.
Mechanisms: This includes agenda setting, determining which issues are deemed "important" or worthy of consideration, and deciding who possesses "standing" (the right) to speak or participate in discussions.
Summary: Actor A manipulates the structural or procedural conditions to ensure Actor B never has the chance to vocalize or introduce their preferences.
Third Dimension: Ideological Power (Steven Lukes, )
Detailed Explanation: This is the most subtle and insidious form of power. Actor A fundamentally shapes Actor B's perceptions, cognitions, and preferences, leading B to genuinely believe that A's interests are also their own, even if these interests ultimately work against B's true welfare.
Preference Shaping: Power operates by influencing individuals' deeply held beliefs and values.
Lukes' Quote: "[I]s it not the supreme and most insidious exercise of power to prevent people, to whatever degree, from having grievances by shaping their perceptions, cognitions and preferences in such a way that they accept their role in the existing order of things, either because they can see or imagine no alternative to it, or because they see it as natural and unchangeable, or because they value it as divinely ordained and beneficial?" (p. )
Summary: Actor A creates an environment where Actor B adopts preferences that align with A's, often to B's detriment, through the manipulation of beliefs and perceptions.
Organized Interests in Politics
Function: Organized interests represent a primary mechanism through which various groups attempt to acquire and exert political power.
Definition: These are political interests that primarily aim to influence public policy decisions without directly fielding or running their own political candidates for office.
Competing Theories of Power: Organized Interests in US Politics
Introduction: Various theories attempt to explain how organized interests influence American politics.
Pluralism:
Core Belief: Assumes that ordinary American citizens have the freedom to either initiate or join any interest group they choose.
Political Arena: Organized interests compete and struggle against each other on what is presumed to be a relatively level playing field.
Dominance: No single set of interests is expected to consistently dominate politics for extended periods.
Collaboration: Encourages organized interests to overcome their differences and collaborate towards shared goals.
Hyper-Pluralism:
Historical Shift: Posits that while America might have once been characterized by pluralism, the current political system has devolved.
Government Capture: Government institutions are perceived to be overwhelmed and effectively "captured" by the incessant and often conflicting demands of numerous interest groups.
Policy Outcome: Instead of judiciously choosing between competing demands, the government attempts to accommodate and implement all interest groups' demands simultaneously.
Consequences: This leads to political dysfunction, resulting in either widespread chaos or prolonged governmental inaction.
Elite Theory:
Power Distribution: Suggests that political power in the US is disproportionately concentrated in the hands of a comparatively small, wealthy, and interconnected group of individuals, known as the "power elite."
Influence Mechanism: This elite group either directly occupies decision-making positions or possesses the financial and social capital to significantly influence those who do.
Policy Outcomes: Policy decisions consistently reflect the interests and preferences of this elite group.
US Political Landscape Today
Party System: Characterized by a dominant two-party system.
Core Conflict: The central ideological divide revolves around the appropriate size and scope of government intervention in society and the economy.
Ideological Spectrum: Key political ideologies shaping this conflict are Liberalism and Conservatism.
Liberal vs. Conservative Ideologies (Generalizations)
Liberals in America Today:
Generally support government programs designed to promote both economic and social equality.
Advocate for the rights and protections of minoritized groups (e.g., based on race, gender).
Tend to be more tolerant of a broader range of social behaviors and lifestyles.
Prefer a smaller military and defense establishment.
Typically support higher taxes on the wealthy to fund social welfare programs.
Conservatives in America Today:
Exhibit distrust towards extensive government programs, placing greater faith in the efficacy of free markets.
Support government actions that aim to promote social order and often utilize government to uphold traditional moral standards.
Advocate for a larger military and defense establishment.
Tend to favor lower taxes to stimulate economic growth and often seek to restrict or reduce social welfare programs.
Models of Political Ideology in the US
Generalizations: It's important to note that these ideological descriptions are broad generalizations.
Diverse Frameworks: A variety of models exist for understanding political ideology in the US.
Seven-Point Scale (ANES): The American National Election Studies (ANES) utilizes a seven-point scale ranging from "extremely liberal" to "extremely conservative" to measure political views.
Two-Dimensional Framework of Ideologies (as presented): This model maps different ideological positions based on their primary emphasis on core political values:
Liberals: Tend to prioritize Equality.
Libertarians: Tend to prioritize Freedom.
Conservatives: Tend to prioritize Order.
Communitarians: Positioned in a way that suggests a blend of societal order and collective well-being, potentially emphasizing both order and equality within a community context.
Pew Political Typology Quiz: Students are encouraged to take the Pew Research Center's "Pew political typology quiz" to identify where their own views fit within various ideological subgroups.
Studying Political Science
Nature of the Discipline: Studying political science is fundamentally not about merely expressing personal opinions.
Core Objective: It involves the systematic and non-ideological analysis of political trends.
Areas of Study: This includes research into public opinion, voting behavior, the functional dynamics of political institutions, and patterns in congressional votes.
Skill Development: A primary aim is to foster critical thinking skills regarding politics and the manifestations of power.
Research Methodologies:
Qualitative Analysis: Focuses on in-depth understanding of meanings, experiences, and processes, often through non-numerical data.
Quantitative Analysis: Involves the use of statistical methods to analyze numerical data to identify patterns, relationships, and generalize findings.
Mixed Methods: Combines both qualitative and quantitative approaches within a single study to gain a more comprehensive understanding.
Dissemination of Research:
Academic Publications: Research findings are typically published in peer-reviewed journal articles and scholarly books.
Peer Review: A rigorous, double-blind peer review process ensures the quality, validity, and methodological soundness of academic work.
Public Engagement: Scholars sometimes translate their research findings into more accessible formats for popular press outlets.
Subfields of Political Science:
American Politics: Focuses on the institutions and political behavior within the United States.
International Relations: Examines interactions between states and other international actors.
Political Theory: Explores fundamental concepts like justice, power, and rights.
Comparative Politics: Compares political systems across different countries.
How to Read a Scholarly Article Efficiently
Strategized Reading Approach: Efficiently reading academic articles is a learned skill that involves a multi-step process.
Read the Abstract: This concise summary provides an overview of the article's subject, methodology, and findings. It also offers an indication of the complexity of the language and concepts used.
Read the Conclusion: The conclusion reiterates the author's main arguments, summarizes their findings, and sometimes places the study in conversation with other research. This step provides another comprehensive overview.
Read the Introduction (or First Paragraph): The introduction typically outlines the author's research plan, stating the article's purpose, central question, and the steps that will be taken to address it. This helps identify the most relevant sections for your interests.
Read the First Sentence of Every Paragraph (Topic Sentences): Topic sentences usually introduce the main idea of their respective paragraphs. Skimming these allows you to quickly ascertain the relevance of each paragraph to your specific research needs before committing to a full read.
Read the Rest of the Article: With the context gained from the abstract, conclusion, introduction, and topic sentences, you can now read the entire article with a better understanding of its structure and main points.
Reading Efficiency Techniques (General):
Annotate: Actively make notes, develop shorthand, and use check marks or asterisks to highlight important points.
Identify Thesis: Clearly pinpoint the text's central argument or main point.
Identify Key Evidence: Locate the crucial pieces of evidence that the author uses to support their thesis.
Note Phrases: Mark powerful phrases, insightful statements, or any phrases that are unclear and require further clarification.
Outline and Summarize: Create an outline of the article's structure and write a concise summary of its content.
Critical Reading (News / Popular Press): When consuming information from news or popular press sources, apply critical evaluation by considering:
Author Credentials: Who is the author, and what are their qualifications to speak on the topic?
Author's Purpose and Audience: What is the author's objective in writing this piece, and for whom is it primarily intended?
Political Perspective: From what political viewpoint is the author writing? This can influence framing and interpretation.
Beyond the Headline: Always read beyond just the headline to understand the full context and nuance of the article.