Second article
1. Definitions of Teaching
Q: What are the two main definitions of teaching described by researchers?
A: The functional definition (helping a naive individual learn without immediate benefit to the teacher) and the mentalistic definition (intentionally helping another agent learn).
Q: What distinguishes the functional definition of teaching?
A: It focuses on the adaptive function, requiring that the learner acquires information more easily, even at a cost to the teacher.
Q: How does the mentalistic definition of teaching differ from the functional one?
A: It includes the teacher’s intention to help and considers failed teaching.
2. Types of Teaching Behaviors
Q: What are five types of teaching behaviors?
A: Social tolerance, opportunity provisioning, stimulus enhancement, evaluative feedback, and direct active teaching.
Q: What is “opportunity provisioning” in teaching?
A: Modifying an activity to make it less difficult or dangerous for the learner.
Q: Which teaching behavior uses verbal explanations or demonstrations?
A: Direct active teaching.
3. Teaching in Animals
Q: Name two species documented to exhibit teaching using the functional definition.
A: Meerkats and honeybees.
Q: What is unique about humans in terms of teaching?
A: Humans are widely believed to be the only species capable of intentional teaching.
4. The Cognitive Instinct View
Q: What does the cognitive instinct view suggest about teaching?
A: Teaching depends on psychological processes shaped by genetic evolution and develops via a specific genetic predisposition.
Q: What ability is central to the mentalistic definition of teaching?
A: Mindreading or the ability to understand another’s thoughts and knowledge.
Q: What are the seven features of teaching as a “natural cognitive ability”?
A: 1) Adaptive problem-solving, 2) distinct from general information processing, 3) automatic, 4) species-unique, 5) species-typical, 6) normative developmental trajectory, and 7) develops without formal instruction.
5. Developmental Sequence of Teaching
Q: At what age do children begin “proto-teaching”?
A: Around 18–24 months.
Q: How do 3-year-olds typically teach compared to 5- or 6-year-olds?
A: 3-year-olds use non-verbal strategies, while 5- or 6-year-olds rely on verbal explanations and tailor instruction to the learner’s needs.
Q: What developmental milestone is linked to shifts in teaching strategies by age 5–6?
A: The ability to combine words and gestures, reflect on teaching processes, and recognize teaching as intentional.
6. Cross-Cultural Evidence
Q: How does the cognitive instinct view explain cross-cultural teaching practices?
A: It suggests that teaching is universal but allows for variation shaped by cultural evolution.
7. Cognitive Gadget Account
Q: What is the cognitive gadget account of teaching?
A: It argues that teaching is culturally learned through interaction, relying on general inherited resources rather than a specific genetic predisposition.
Q: How does the cognitive gadget account differ from the cognitive instinct view?
A: It emphasizes cultural transmission over genetic evolution and suggests teaching develops through social learning.
Q: What evidence supports the cognitive gadget view?
A: Cross-cultural diversity in teaching practices, fieldwork, and experimental studies showing cultural evolution of teaching.
Here are more flashcards based on the section you provided:
Flashcard 1:
• Q: What does the gadget hypothesis propose about the emergence of human teaching?
• A: The gadget hypothesis suggests that human teaching emerged through cultural evolution, with the cognitive capacity to teach assembled from ‘old parts’ during childhood through cultural learning and social interactions.
Flashcard 2:
• Q: What is the role of the “genetic starter kit” in the gadget hypothesis?
• A: The genetic starter kit consists of genetic adaptations that make humans particularly receptive to learning from others, supporting social and cultural learning, but not specifically for teaching.
Flashcard 3:
• Q: What cognitive ‘parts’ are involved in the human capacity to teach according to the gadget hypothesis?
• A: The cognitive ‘parts’ involved include perceptual processes, learning processes, executive processes, and mindreading, all of which are evolutionarily ancient and come online early in human development.
Flashcard 4:
• Q: How does the gadget hypothesis view mindreading in teaching?
• A: The gadget hypothesis does not consider mindreading as the central feature of teaching. It suggests that mindreading evolved for various social functions and is only one of several cognitive processes involved in teaching.
Flashcard 5:
• Q: How do cultural and environmental factors influence children’s ability to teach?
• A: Children’s teaching abilities are shaped by cultural exposure, including the teaching methods of caregivers and peers, which vary across cultures. Children adapt their teaching methods based on their socio-cultural environment.
Flashcard 6:
• Q: How do children’s early experiences influence their teaching abilities?
• A: Children learn to teach by experiencing communicative acts in everyday life, such as eye contact, pointing, and observing caregivers. These experiences motivate children to engage in teaching behaviors.
Flashcard 7:
• Q: What is the relationship between cultural transmission and teaching?
• A: The gadget hypothesis posits that teaching is culturally transmitted, not only in terms of actions but also ways of thinking, with teaching depending on social learning, imitation, and feedback.
Flashcard 8:
• Q: How does the gadget hypothesis differ from the instinct view of teaching?
• A: The gadget hypothesis emphasizes cultural learning and domain-general cognitive processes in teaching, while the instinct view places mindreading as central to teaching, suggesting it evolved specifically for this purpose.
Flashcard 9:
• Q: How do executive functions relate to teaching in children?
• A: Executive functions, such as inhibition, attention, and error detection, are more important for teaching than mindreading, as shown in studies of children’s ability to teach and predict teaching skills.
Flashcard 10:
• Q: What role does reinforcement learning play in teaching?
• A: Reinforcement learning, an ancient cognitive process involved in tracking prediction errors, plays a significant role in teaching by helping teachers assess and adjust their feedback to the learner’s progress.
Flashcard 11:
• Q: How does the concept of natural pedagogy differ from the gadget hypothesis?
• A: Natural pedagogy suggests that infants are born with a specific predisposition to learn from others through communicative signals, whereas the gadget hypothesis argues that infants’ learning is based on domain-general social adaptations.
Flashcard 12:
• Q: What is the role of conceptual communication and language in teaching, according to the gadget hypothesis?
• A: While language and conceptual communication may aid in teaching, the gadget hypothesis suggests these abilities were selected for solving coordination problems and were not specifically evolved for teaching.
Here are some flashcards based on the provided section:
Q: What is the “zone of proximal development” according to Vygotsky?
A: It is the range of tasks that a child can perform with adult guidance or collaboration with more capable peers, but cannot yet perform independently.
Q: How does teaching differ between human cultures compared to non-human animals?
A: Humans show numerous cross-cultural differences in what is taught and how it is taught, whereas non-human animals mainly teach specific behaviors related to food acquisition, with limited cross-species teaching.
Q: In societies with formal education systems, what teaching methods are typically emphasized?
A: Frontal teaching, direct instruction, and abstract verbal explanations are emphasized.
Q: How do middle-class parents in Western countries often teach their children?
A: Through intensive verbal communication, teaching skills such as walking that do not necessarily need to be taught.
Q: How do some hunter-gatherer societies, like the Tsimane in Bolivia, differ in their teaching styles?
A: Adults rarely talk to toddlers, with less than a minute of verbal communication per daylight hour.
Q: In many small-scale societies, what is the primary way children learn?
A: Through observation, imitation, and pretend play, often without direct communication with adult caregivers.
Q: What is “learning by doing” in teaching?
A: Children learn skills by participating in everyday activities, observing others, and contributing as opportunities arise.
Q: How do caregivers typically use speech in small-scale societies?
A: Caregivers primarily use speech to support the activities children are engaged in, giving commands rather than advance verbal instruction.
Q: How do teaching practices in the US compare to ni-Vanuatu horticulturalists in terms of child-teacher interaction?
A: US caregivers focus on direct active teaching and praise, while ni-Vanuatu caregivers encourage shared interaction and collaboration between the child and caregiver.
Q: What is “opportunity scaffolding” in teaching?
A: Providing a child with an object or opportunity to explore, allowing them to learn through practice and interaction.
Q: How do teaching practices in industrialized societies differ from those in small-scale societies?
A: In industrialized societies, abstract verbal instruction is more common, whereas in small-scale societies, teaching is more hands-on and involves practical, experiential learning.
Q: How does exposure to formal education affect teaching practices in small-scale societies?
A: People exposed to formal education may adopt more verbal instruction and hierarchical teaching styles, resembling practices encountered in school.
Q: How do different cultures conceptualize teaching, according to the Chinese vs US studies?
A: Chinese children believe more knowledgeable learners should be taught to improve their skills, while US children believe less knowledgeable learners should be prioritized for teaching.
Q: What is the “cumulative cultural evolution” of teaching?
A: It refers to the gradual refinement of teaching practices across generations, where teaching methods improve and accumulate over time.
Q: How does “intensive teaching” differ in small-scale societies versus large-scale societies?
A: In small-scale societies, intensive teaching is used for ceremonial and spiritual expertise, often in a dedicated, separate social context, while in large-scale societies, it occurs in educational institutions or specialized workshops.
Q: What is the role of “experiential rituals” in teaching, using the Malakula initiation example?
A: Experiential rituals, such as those in Malakula, emphasize learning through hands-on experiences and active participation, and transmit cultural knowledge through immersive and ritualistic teaching.
Q: How does teaching contribute to cumulative cultural evolution in large-scale societies?
A: Teaching contributes by improving the transmission of complex skills and by becoming more specialized in professional settings, like didactics in tertiary education institutions.